THE  WONDERS 
OF  MODBRN 
MECHANISM 


TO  MEMOEIAM 
Professor   J.   Henry  Senger 


A   CABLE-RAILWAY—ROBERT  POOLE,  SON  A  CO.'S  DESIGN. 


THE  WONDERS 


OF 


MODERN  MECHANISM 


A    RESUME    OF 


KECENT  PROGRESS  IN  MECHANICAL   PHYSICAL, 
AND  ENGINEERING  SCIENCE. 


BY 

CHARLES  HENRY  COCHRANE, 

Mechanical  Engineer, 

AUTHOR  OF  "  ARTISTIC  HOMER.  AND  HOW  TO  BUILD  THEM."  "THE  HISTORY 
OF   MARLBOROUOH."  ETC. 


ILLUSTRATED. 


PHILADELPHIA  : 

J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT   COMPANY. 

1896. 


cc 


COPYRIGHT,  1895, 

BY 
J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY. 


MEMOR/AM 


\ 


|\  o 

.      ^V  M     ^ 


ELECTROTYPED  AND  PRINTED  BY  J.  B.  LIPPINCOTT  COMPANY,  PHILADELPHIA,  U.S.A. 


TO  TOE 

ARMY  OF  AMERICAN  INVENTORS, 

WHO   OCCUPY   THE    FIRST   PLACE    IN   THE    WORLD'S    MARCH    OF 
PROGRESS,   THIS   BOOK 

18 
APPRECIATIVELY  DEDICATED. 


922699 


PREFACE. 


THE  design  of  tho  writer  of  the  following  pages  is  to 
present  to  the  public,  in  ]><»piilur  language,  the  results  ob- 
tained within  recent  years  by  engineering  and  mechanical 
seienee,  together  with  suggestions  as  to  what  the  future 
mav  bring  forth,  such  inferences  Ix'ing  drawn  from  the 
known  lines  of  research  upon  which  great  minds  are  bent. 
There  exists  an  unfortunate  tendency  in  the  newspajKT 
press,  when  publishing  accounts  of  new  inventions,  to  laud 
each  one  in  accordance  with  some  one's  flights  of  fancy, 
claiming  so  much,  and  making  so  many  exaggerated  and 
unscientific  statements,  that  careful  readers  have*  learned 
that  they  cannot  depend  upon  the  daily  newspajx»r,  as  a 
rule,  to  give  them  an  accurate  record  of  the  world's 
progress  in  mechanics  and  physical  science.  Among 
technical  journals,  on  the  other  hand,  there  is  frequently 
an  equally  unfortunate  tendency  to  so  hide  the  descriptions 
of  present  and  coming  inventions  in  a  maze  of  technical 
detail  that  only  a  favored  few  can  understand  them.  Be- 
tween these  two  the  writer  has  tried  to  steer  his  course, 
ever  on  the  watch  to  maintain  accuracy  with  plain  and 
simple  statement.  If  there  are  occasional  lapses  into  tech- 
nical language,  varied  by  flights  of  speculation  into  the 
realms  of  the  possible  rather  than  the  existent,  it  is  hoped 
that  the  reader  will  pardon  such  sandwiching  for  the  sake 
of  the  facts  that  lie  between.  For  these  no  apology  is 
necessary.  The  facts  given,  gleaned  from  the  workshops 
of  inventors,  are  worthy  the  attention  of  all.  There  is 

7 


8  PREFACE. 

no  calling  more  admirable  than  that  of  the  inventor.  He 
who  does  that  which  has  never  been  done  before,  and 
shows  his  fellow- men  how  to  make  improved  use  of  the 
forces  of  Nature,  confers  a  blessing  on  all  posterity.  The 
search  for  that  which  is  not  known  must  ever  fascinate 
the  greatest  and  wisest  of  men,  and  the  triumphs  of  in- 
vestigating genius  recorded  in  this  book  are  but  a  few  of 
the  results  of  the  labor  of  the  thinkers  who  have  kept  in 
advance  of  the  crowd  and  added  to  the  sum  of  human 
knowledge. 

The  number  and  value  of  inventions  have  increased  so 
rapidly  of  recent  years  that  the  public  has  come  to  accept 
the  most  marvellous  innovations  with  a  readiness  that  soon 
makes  of  them  an  old  story.  While  there  are  thousands 
of  people  alive  to-day  who  remember  the  first  railroad, 
the  first  steamboat,  and  the  first  telegraph,  we  have  among 
us  a  younger  generation  who  never  knew  what  it  was 
to  be  without  the  electric  light,  the  telephone,  the  electric 
railway,  or  the  mammoth  daily  newspaper.  The  genera- 
tion that  is  to  come  will  live  in  an  age  of  new  wonders, 
and  surrounded  by  new  creature  conveniences,  a  few  of 
which  we  can  discern  darkly.  Some  day,  mayhap,  this 
book  will  fall  into  the  hands  of  some  favored  one  living 
in  an  age  made  vastly  more  brilliant  than  our  own,  and 
he  may  smile  at  the  so-called  progress  here  recorded  that 
marks  the  close  of  the  nineteenth  century.  Let  such  ah 
one  reflect  that  there  is  beyond  him  a  higher  and  a  wider 
and  a  greater  field  of  undiscovered  knowledge,  and  that 
he,  too,  in  his  turn,  will  some  day  sleep  with  the  useless, 
lumbering  relics  of  the  past. 

CHAS.  H.  COCHRANE. 

WEST  NEW  BRIGHTON,  NEW  YORK,  Sept.  21,  1895. 


CONTENTS. 


PAOI 

Bio  BUSINESS  BUILDINGS  .    .           11 

EXTRAORDINARY  BRIDGE*  .    .                  20 

SOMK  GRKAT  TUNNELS    .   .                  :{•; 

CANALS,  OLD  AND  NEW     44 

ELECTRICITY  AND  ITS  FUTURE                55 

THE    KlNETO-PlIONOGRAPH .     .  TO 

THE  ELECTRIC  STORAGE-BATTERY 75 

ELECTRIC  PLEASURE  BOATS 8«'> 

THE  OCEAN  GREYHOUNDS '.»« 

RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  GUNS  AND  ARMOR  ...  102 

SUBMARINE  BOATS ...  120 

FLYING  MACHINES 127 

HORSELESS  VEHICLES 1:10 

BICYCLE  MANUFACTURE 150 

COMPRESSED-AIR  MECHANISMS 158 

THE  CHAINING  OF  NIAGARA  FALLS 165 

IMPROVEMENTS  IN  TELEGRAPHY 173 

ELECTRICITY  DIRECT  FROM  COAL 180 

NIKOLA  TESLA  AND  HIS  OSCILLATOR 183 

THE  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVE 187 

LIGHT-TRAFFIC  RAILWAY  SYSTEMS 190 

CONDUIT  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS  .       208 

A  HUNDRED  AND  TWENTY  MILES  AN  HOUR 219 

THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  STEKL  .    .       225 

MACHINE  TOOLS 237 

MINING  AND  MINING-MACHINERY  .   .                  257 

ORE-CONCENTRATING  MACHINERY 205 

THE  PELTON  WATER-WHEEL 279 

ILLUMINATING  GAS 286 

OIL-WELLS  AND  THEIR  PRODUCTS 297 

COAL-HANDLING  MACHINERY 307 

ICE-MAKING  AND  REFRIGERATING 317 

9 


10  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

ALUMINUM,  THE  METAL  OF  THE  FUTURE 325 

WIRE  NETTING  IN  GLASS 333 

MACHINE-MADE  WATCHES 339 

PROGRESS  IN  PRINTING 348 

PHOTOMECHANICAL  PROCESSES 362 

STEREOTYPING  AND  ELECTROTYPING 368 

SUGAR-MAKING  MACHINERY 373 

THE  EMERY  TESTING-MACHINE 380 

THE  SPECTROSCOPE 388 

MISCELLANEOUS  INVENTIONS     .    .           396 


THE   WONDERS 


OF 


MODERN    MECHANISM, 


BIG   BUSINESS    BUILDINGS. 

Towering  Steel  Structures  that  dwarf  Churches  and  Monuments 
—The  Principles  and  Methods  involved  in  their  Construction. 

MAN  is  giv<»n  to  admiration  for  that  which  is  largo. 
The  Egyptians  who  built  the  pyramids  no  doubt  felt 
great  satisfaction  in  their  achievements,  and  their  work 
has  l>een  admired  by  all  succeeding  ages.  Within  recent 
years,  however,  the  world  has  reached  a  point  where 
business  necessities  cause  the  erection  of  toller  and  taller 
edifices,  and  already  the  spires  of  beauteous  churches  are 
being  dwarfed  by  apartment  houses  and  office  buildings 
whose  owners  desire  to  obtain  a  larger  income  from  the 
valuable  land  which  they  occupy. 

It  is  not  so  everywhere.  There  are  great  cities,  as  in 
Asia  and  Europe,  where  one-story  and  two-story  buildings 
are  the  rule,  and  anything  above  these  in  height  stands 
out  as  a  landmark.  In  Havana,  Cuba,  for  instance,  they 
keep  to  the  lower  levels,  because  it  is  (or  was)  necessary  to 
"  buy  the  winds"  ;  that  is,  pay  a  tax  for  the  privilege  of 
building  above  a  certain  height.  Thus  local  laws  and 

11 


12  "JP6&DERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


s  often'make  it  impracticable  to  erect  tall  struc- 
tures. But  in  the  United  States,  where  large  cities  spring 
up  in  a  generation,  the  increase  in  land  values  has  been  so 
rapid  as  to  give  great  stimulus  to  high  building  in  centres 
of  business.  The  four-story  affairs  that  were  the  common 
thing  in  the  seventies  have  sunk  into  the  shadow  of  the 
seven-  and  eight-story  buildings  that  are  now  everywhere 
to  be  seen  in  the  most  valuable  portions  of  the  larger 
cities  of  this  republic. 

While  the  massive  cathedrals  of  ancient  Europe  and 
the  more  modern  Washington  Monument  prove  that  it  is 
possible  to  build  to  a  height  of  five  hundred  feet  or  more 
with  stone  and  brick,  yet  the  cost  of  these  structures,  and 
the  enormous  thickness  of  the  walls,  make  it  impossible 
to  attempt  such  elevations  with  these  materials  when 
building  for  purely  commercial  purposes.  It  is  here  that 
modern  cheap  steel  finds  an  immense  and  growing  market. 
It  permits  the  construction  of  tall  buildings,  with  com- 
paratively thin  walls  and  large  areas  for  window  spaces, 
at  a  cost  that  is  not  excessive,  and  of  a  strength  and  dura- 
bility that  are  unquestioned.  Unfortunately,  these  steel 
buildings  are  not  fire-proof,  unless  the  iron  is  protected 
against  the  warping  that  would  result  from  exposure  to 
great  heat  followed  by  the  contraction  incident  to  throwing 
on  streams  of  cold  water.  It  is,  therefore,  necessary  to 
use  a  facing  of  stone,  terra-cotta,  or  the  like,  giving  such 
buildings  the  resemblance  to  the  more  common  stone  struc- 
tures that  surround  them.  Sometimes  these  exterior  stone 
Avails  carry  their  own  weight,  being  simply  anchored  to  the 
steel  frame  to  insure  steadiness,  but  more  often  the  metal 
has  to  carry  the  added  weight  of  the  stone  above  the  sixth 
or  seventh  story.  For  these  reasons  every  added  story  to 
a  great  building  increases  greatly  the  total  cost  of  the  struc- 


BIO  BUSINESS  BUILDINGS  13 

tu re,  .since  every  story  below  must  IK?  designed  to  carry  its 
additional  weight. 

The  first  consideration  of  a  builder  who  is  called  upon 
to  erect  one  of  these  towering  steel  business  buildings  is  the 
nature  of  the  foundations.  If  he  can  build  UJMHI  the  U-d- 
roek,  that  part  of  the  work  is  easy,  and  almost  any  weight 
that  human  beings  can  pile  on  will  l>c  taken  care  of  bv 
Mother  Earth.  Hut  frequently  he  is  called  UJMUI  to  build 
on  sand  or  gravel,  or  even  mud.  In  such  a  ease  he  may 
find  almost  as  much  work  to  do  l>elow  as  above  the  pave- 
ment. In  many  seaside  cities  the  usual  bottom  is  fine 
sand  or  gravel.  If  this  is  reasonably  hard,  and  not  given 
to  shifting,  a  pile  foundation  may  be  used.  The  piles  are 
driven  in  groups  all  over  the  building  lot,  the  tops  Ix'ing 
tied  together  by  beds  of  concrete,  usually  fifteen  to  twenty 
inches  thick,  to  avoid  any  chance  of  spreading,  which 
might  otherwise  occur  where  adjacent  heavy  buildings 
were  removed  or  excavations  made  alongside.  Such  a 
foundation  will  bear  a  weight  of  forty  thousand  jxuinds 
per  pile.  If  the  soil  is  very  soft  and  yielding,  it  l>ecomes 
necessary  to  resort  to  other  methods.  In  Chicago,  masses 
of  long  steel  rails  have  been  laid  in  beds  of  cement,  the 
rails  being  so  crossed  and  the  whole  so  connected  as  to 
form  practically  one  solid  mass,  of  immense  solidity.  In 
a  case  in  New  York,  caissons,  somewhat  similar  to  those 
commonly  used  in  the  construction  of  bridge  foundations, 
were  used  with  success.  The  ground  was  a  regular  quick- 
sand, and  the  bed-rock  fifty-seven  feet  below  the  street- 
level.  To  dig  down  to  the  rock  would  have  been  to  un- 
dermine surrounding  structures.  It  was  therefore  decided 
to  sink  steel  caissons,  made  like  great  boxes  open  at  the 
bottom.  The  workmen  dug  inside  of  these,  lowering  them 
as  they  progressed,  and  sending  up  the  removed  material 

2 


14  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

through  metal  shafts  that  were  sunk  with  the  caissons. 
There  were  fifteen  of  these  caissons  in  all,  and  they  were 
lowered  at  the  rate  of  four  feet  a  day.  When  bed-rock 
was  reached  the  caissons  were  filled  with  concrete,  brick 
piers  being  erected  on  top,  each  bearing  a  huge  block  of 
granite  for  a  cap,  to  support  the  lower  girders  of  the 
structure  above. 

With  brick  and  stone  buildings  it  is  customary  to  rest 
the  walls  upon  courses  of  stone,  so  that  the  weight  is  con- 
tinuously distributed  along  the  line.  But  with  steel  struc- 
tures, involving  greater  weight  with  thinner  wralls,  it  be- 
comes desirable  to  distribute  the  weight  on  numerous  piers. 
As  all  such  buildings  are  erected  on  very  valuable  ground, 
it  is  usually  necessary  to  run  the  walls  to  the  extreme  edge 
of  the  property.  The  walls  being  but  a  few  feet  in  thick- 
ness the  weight  would  naturally  come  on  the  outside  of  the 
lot,  and  the  tendency  is  to  tip  over  the  piers  upon  whose 
outer  edges  the  walls  rest.  To  avoid  this  the  cantilever 

truss  is  commonly  used.  It  is 
...  a  reversal  of  the  truss  used 
in  cantilever  bridges,  and  its 
construction  is  best  shown  by 
the  accompanying  drawing. 
These  cantilever  girders  may 
be  anywhere  from  ten  tons  to 
eighty  tons  each  in  weight. 
The  larger  sizes  are  made  in 

sections,  owing  to  the  impracticability  of  handling  such 
heavy  masses  of  metal. 

The  steel  and  iron  used  in  these  structures  must  be  of 
known  good  quality,  and  the  specifications  customarily 
require  that  the  maker  shall  submit  to  certain  tests  a  piece 
of  each  batch  rolled,  so  that  the  limit  of  safety  may  not  be 


BIO   BUM X ESS  BUILDIXGS.  15 

endangered.  Good  structural  steel  will  have  an  ultimate 
strength  of  sixty  thousand  pounds  i>er  square  inch,  and 
wrought  iron  forty-five  thousand  or  fifty  thousand  pounds. 
Where  the  only  strain  to  be  borne  is  weight,  east  iron  is 
nearly  as  gcxxl  as  steel,  and  it  is  often  used  in  the  main 
columns  of  the  lower  stories.  Both  bolts  and  rivets  are 
used  to  connect  the  jwrts  of  the  steel  framing,  the  latter 
iK-ing  considered  best.  They  have  to  be  put  in  hot,  as  in 
bridge-building,  and  it  is  an  interesting  sight  to  see  a 
riveter  catching  red-hot  rivets  in  a  keg,  as  tossed  to  him 
from  an  adjacent  forge,  this  met  IKK!  being  often  used  to 
prevent  the  bolts  from  cooling  in  transit. 

Steel  columns  are  commonly  made  in  two-story  lengths, 
the  section,  or  end  view,  of  the  metal  l>eing  in  the  form  of 
a  Z.  This  shaj>e  is  nearly  as  strong  as  a  tulie,  and  pre- 
sents many  advantages  that  a  tulx?  does  not.  The  edges 
are  convenient  for  the  riveting  on  of  braces,  tiers,  and 
girders,  and  the  recesses  are  just  the  thing  for  concealing 
pi}>es,  wires,  etc.  It  is  usual  to  punch  all  the  holts  in  the 
steel  at  the  rolling-mill,  so  that  the  workmen  on  the  build- 
ing have  only  to  hoist  the  pieces  in  place  and  rivet  them 
together  according  to  the  plans.  Great  accuracy  of  work 
is  requisite  in  order  that  every  part  may  fit,  and  every  hole 
come  exactly  in  the  right  place,  for  if  a  hole  is  made  only 
the  thirty-second  of  an  inch  to  one  side  it  makes  great 
trouble  for  the  riveter.  The  method  of  securing  uniform- 
ity in  the  position  of  the  holes  is  to  use  templates,  which 
are  patterns  of  wood  or  metal  drilled  just  as  the  steel  is  to 
be  punched.  By  placing  this  template  over  a  piece,  and 
punching  or  drilling  the  holes  through  the  templates,  the 
holes  in  that  piece  are  made  to  bear  the  same  relation  to 
each  other  as  the  holes  in  similar  pieces. 

In  calculating  the  strains  on  tall  buildings  wind  press- 


16  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

ure  becomes  an  important  item.  If  it  is  over  two  hun- 
dred feet  high  and  rather  narrow,  it  is  deemed  safe  to 
allow  for  a  possible  wind  pressure  of  thirty  pounds  to  the 
foot — a  pressure  that  would  blow  an  empty  box-car  oif  a 
railway  track.  If  there  is  a  tower  or  finial  running  still 
higher,  an  allowance  of  fifty  pounds  per  square  foot  is 
proper.  To  meet  this  pressure  angle-braces  are  put  in,  or 
extra  wide  plate-girders  are  used  at  different  points  to 
stiffen  the  frame. 

The  mechanism  used  to  put  the  steel  and  masonry  in 
place  is  collectively  called  an  erecting-plant.  It  consists 
of  a  platform  of  a  size  suitable  to  be  elevated  within  the 
walls  of  the  building.  Here  are  placed  hoisting  devices, 
as  sheer-legs,  masts,  cranes,  etc.,  together  with  hoisting- 
engines.  The  various  heavy  pieces  are  hauled  to  the  spot 
by  teams,  tied  with  great  cables,  and  swung  up  into  place. 
When  the  framework  for  two  stories  has  been  thus  set  into 
place,  the  erecting-plant  itself  is  hoisted  to  the  new  level, 
set  on  solid  girders,  and  the  work  goes  on.  If  it  is  to  be  a 
twenty-story  building  or  thereabouts,  a  temporary  roof  is 
erected  at  about  the  tenth  story,  to  protect  the  workmen 
below,  who  can  then  go  on  with  the  plumbing,  plastering, 
etc.,  without  being  subject  to  a  drenching  from  the  rain  or 
a  crack  on  the  head  from  falling  rivets. 

A  very  important  part  of  the  roof  construction  in  such 
buildings  lies  in  arrangements  for  the  water  supply.  City 
mains  are  designed  to  supply  only  about  four  stories. 
These  big  buildings  require  large  tanks,  so  constructed 
that  they  can  never  annoy  the  tenants  by  freezing,  or 
damage  the  building  by  flooding.  To  avoid  the  first 
danger  they  are  surrounded  by  an  attic  connected  with 
the  top  of  the  elevator-shafts,  so  that  the  spare  heat  of 
the  building  always  collects  around  the  tanks.  The  dan- 


BIG   BUSINESS  BUILDINGS.  17 

ger  of  flooding  is  further  avoided  by  the  use  of  curved 
connections,  and  by  placing  pij>es  away  from  the  wall 
wherever  possible.  For  this  purpose  they  are  often  orna- 
mentally constructed,  so  its  to  be  rather  an  improvement 
to  the  looks  of  a  hall  or  toilet-room.  If  a  stoppage  occurs 
in  a  pipe,  it  is  easily  got  at  and  remedied  before  any 
damage  results. 

The  heating  arrangements  require  excessive  care,  for 
the  comfort  and  safety  of  all  concerned.  The  most  com- 
mon plan  is  to  use  the  exhaust  steam  from  the  boilers, 
providing  arrangement  for  the  introduction  of  live  steam 
when  necessary.  As  there  is  no  pressure  in  the  pi|»cs, 
and  as  exhaust  steam  costs  nothing,  l>cing  the  waste  after 
use  in  the  engines,  such  an  arrangement  is  most  economi- 
cal. Steam-engines  or  some  other  source  of  jx»wer  are 
always  required  to  run  the  elevators,  without  which  no 
one  would  ever  occupy  these  great  towers.  There  are 
often  as  many  as  six  or  eight  elevators,  set  in  two  or  more 
shafts,  so  that  in  case  of  fire  there  may  be  various  means 
of  exit  for  the  occupants.  Although  steam  is  the  common 
source  of  power,  yet  most  of  the  elevators  are  oj>erated 
by  an  hydraulic  apjwiratus,  where  the  pressure  of  stored 
water  serves  to  keep  a  reserve  of  power,  always  likely  to 
be  in  demand  in  elevator  service. 

It  is  possible  to  put  up  one  of  these  colossal  twenty- 
story  buildings  within  a  twelvemonth.  When  we  consider 
that  many  of  the  great  cathedrals  of  Europe  required 
several  centuries  for  their  erection,  the  dome  of  St.  Peter's 
at  Rome  being  of  itself  a  work  of  one  hundred  years,  we 
the  better  appreciate  the  wonders  of  modern  building. 
And  what  an  army  of  men  are  employed,  and  how  system- 
atically they  work  !  The  lower  stories  are  finished  while 
the  upper  ones  are  in  course  of  erection,  and  often  there 

b  2* 


18 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


are  tenants  inside  doing  business  while  the  work  goes  on* 
The  most  tedious  delay  is  that  caused  by  waiting  for  the 


FIG.  2. 


THE  MANHATTAN  LIFE  INSURANCE  COiMPANY  BUILDING. 

drying  of  the  plaster.  The  partitions  are  made  of  hollow 
bricks,  which  are  not  accurate  as  to  size.  The  masons, 
therefore,  lay  them  even  on  one  side,  leaving  all  the  irregu- 


BIO  BUSINESS  BUILDINGS.  19 

larities  on  the  other.  A  very  thin  coat  of  plastering  does 
for  the  true  side  and  is  soon  dry,  hut  the  uneven  side  may 
require  an  inch  or  an  inch  and  a  half  of  plaster  in  some 
parts.  This  dries  but  slowly,  and  often  shrinks  so  un- 
evenly as  to  require  further  plastering  to  render  the  sur- 
face true.  But  despite  all  such  delays  these  big  structures 
seldom  occupy  two  years  of  time  in  the  building.  In  one 
case,  that  of  the  Reliance  building,  corner  of  Washington 
and  State  Streets,  Chicago,  a  sixteen-story  structure  was 
made  to  replace  an  old  five-story  building,  and  opportunity 
afforded  the  occujKint  to  keep  at  least  one  floor  for  busi- 
ness during  the  entire  progress  of  the  work,  yet  the  whole 
was  run  up  without  special  delay. 

The  enormous  amount  of  plumbing  in  one  of  these  great 
buildings  may  be  inferred  from  the  statement  that  there 
are  ten  and  a  half  miles  of  water-,  gas-,  waste-,  and  vent- 
pipes  in  the  Manhattan  Life  Insurance  Company's  build- 
ing, corner  Broadway  and  New  Streets,  New  York.  Here 
are  also  laid  thirty-five  miles  of  electric  wires.  Among 
other  curiosities  of  construction  in  such  buildings  are  the 
great  number  of  steam-pumps.  In  one  case  the  contract 
called  for  twenty-three  of  these,  though  the  building  was 
designed  for  ordinary  uses.  Another  novelty  is  an  ice- 
water  plant,  which  has  been  introduced  with  success,  being 
supplied  from  a  refrigerating  apparatus  in  the  sub-cellar. 
The  object  of  this  is  to  avoid  the  nuisance  of  having  ice 
carried  all  through  the  building  by  tenants.  Fountains 
are  therefore  supplied  in  each  of  the  halls,  connected  with 
a  special  shaft  run  through  the  building  to  carry  the  cold- 
water  pipes,  and  keep  them  separated  from  steam-pipes 
and  radiators.  The  method  used  is  to  compress  air,  which 
in  compressing  gathers  heat  enormously.  This  compressed 
air  is  then  cooled  to  a  normal  temperature  by  the  waste 


20  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

water,  after  which  it  is  introduced  into  a  coil  of  pipe 
within  a  water  tank.  Here  it  is  allowed  to  expand,  and, 
according  to  the  laws  of  gases,  loses  in  temperature  as 
much  as  it  gained  by  compression.  This  fall  in  tempera- 
ture is  communicated  to  the  water,  reducing  it  to  about 
35°  or  40°  Fahrenheit.  It  is  then  pumped  up  through  in- 
sulated pipes  to  the  floors  above.  The  waste  water  returned 
(after  having  served  to  cool  the  compressed  air,  as  before 
mentioned,  and  thereby  acquire  heat)  is  used  as  feed- water 
to  the  boilers,  effecting  an  all-around  economy. 

The  cost  of  these  big  structures  depends  more  nearly 
upon  the  number  of  cubic  feet  they  contain  than  would  be 
supposed  at  first.  The  extremes  are  twenty-five  and  sixty 
cents  per  foot,  as  shown  by  the  following  data  concerning 
large  buildings  of  different  cities :  The  Masonic  Temple, 
Chicago,  twenty  stories,  fourteen  passenger  elevators,  rich 
marble  work,  cost  fifty-eight  cents  per  cubic  foot;  Pu- 
litzer building,  New  York,  stone  front,  fire-proof,  thirty- 
eight  cents  per  cubic  'foot ;  New  England  Mutual  Life 
Insurance  Company's  building,  Boston,  granite,  richly 
decorated,  sixty  cents  per  cubic  foot ;  Monadnock  build- 
ing, Chicago,  sixteen  stories,  rich  marble  work,  forty-two 
and  a  half  cents  per  cubic  foot;  eight  to  sixteen  story 
office  buildings  in  New  York,  thirty  to  sixty  cents  per 
cubic  foot;  Wainwright  building,  St.  Louis,  ten  stories, 
twenty-five  cents  per  cubic  foot ;  Union  Trust  building, 
St.  Louis,  fourteen  stories,  twenty-eight  cents  per  cubic 
foot ;  Equitable  Life  Insurance  Company's  building,  Den- 
ver, nine  stories,  marble  wainscoting  in  first  story,  forty- 
two  cents  per  cubic  foot;  Rookery  building,  Chicago, 
eleven  stories,  ten  passenger  elevators,  thirty-two  cents  per 
cubic  foot ;  Brown's  Palace  Hotel,  Denver,  nine  stories, 
iron  and  onyx,  thirty  cents  per  cubic  foot. 


BIG  BUSINESS  BUILDINGS.  21 

To  give  the  reader  an  idea  of  the  amount  of  steel  used 
in  one  of  these  structures,  it  may  IK?  stated  as  a  rough 
estimate  that  a  one-million-dollar  steel  building  will  con- 
tain |>erhaps  eight  million  jx)unds  of  steel. 

A  recent  improvement  in  the  laying  of  mosaic  floors  in 
these  buildings  is  the  use  of  semi-soil  asphalt.  By  this 
means  the  floor  is  rendered  additionally  fire-proof,  and  the 
asphalt  accommodates  itself  to  all  shrinkages,  so  that  no 
cracking  results.  The  mosaics  can  be  made  only  one  inch 
in  thickness,  whereas  a  thickness  of  from  two  and  a  half 
to  three  inches  is  required  with  a  concrete  basis. 

Steel  construction  has  advanced  so  rapidly  that  it  is  now 
cheaj>er  for  moderately  large  buildings  than  either  brick 
or  stone.  At  least  one  church  is  in  course  of  erection 
having  a  steel  framework.  This  is  the  Church  of  St. 
Mary  the  Virgin,  oil  West  Forty-sixth  Street,  New  York. 
It  is  of  moderate  size,  seating  a  little  over  eight  hundred, 
and  I  wing  but  one  hundred  and  fifteen  feet  high,  with  a 
ground  plan  of  a  hundred  and  eighty  by  forty-six  feet. 
About  four  hundred  tons  of  steel  are  used  in  its  construc- 
tion, the  frame  being  entirely  of  rolled  steel.  All  the 
visible  walls  will  be  of  Indiana  buff  limestone,  the  com- 
posite arrangement  being  cheaper  than  if  built  in  the  old 
way,  of  brick  and  stone.  Steel  roof-trusses  have  been 
used  in  churches  for  many  years,  but  this  is  the  first  in- 
stance of  the  durable  metal  being  used  for  the  entire  frame- 
work. It  is  an  open  question  whether  the  cheapness  of 
steel  will  not  eventually  result  in  making  it  the  principal 
constituent  of  all  buildings  of  a  permanent  character.  Its 
durability  considered,  it  is  the  lowest-priced  building- 
material  in  the  market.  The  chapter  on  steel-making  will 
give  the  reader  a  better  conception  of  the  reasons  why  steel 
can  now  be  manufactured  at  so  low  a  price. 


22  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

Some  details  of  the  great  buildings  of  several  American 
cities  may  be  of  interest  here.  The  Manhattan  Life  In- 
surance Company's  building  on  Broadway,  New  York,  is 
twenty-three  stories  high,  and  two  hundred  and  forty -two 
feet  from  the  sidewalk  to  the  top  of  the  main  roof,  one 
hundred  and  eight  feet  more  to  the  foot  of  the  flagstaff, 
and  four  hundred  and  seven  feet  from  the  bottom  of  the 
foundations  to  the  foot  of  the  flagstaff.  It  cost  nearly 
two  million  dollars,  and  is  believed  to  be  the  tallest  build- 
ing ever  erected  for  business  purposes. 

The  American  Tract  Society's  building,  corner  Nassau 
and  Spruce  Streets,  New  York,  is  also  t\venty-three  stories 
high,  and  the  main  roof  is  two  hundred  and  forty  feet 
above  the  street.  With  its  finial,  the  total  height  is  about 
three  hundred  feet.  The  contract  price  for  erection  was 
nine  hundred  thousand  dollars. 

The  Pulitzer  building,  the  home  of  the  New  York 
World,  on  Nassau  Street,  was  at  the  time  of  its  erection 
(1890)  the  tallest  business  building  in  New  York.  It  is 
fifteen  stories  high,  and  three  hundred  and  nine  feet  from 
the  lantern  to  the  ground.  Measured  from  the  tip  of 
the  flag-staff  to  the  bottom  of  the  foundations,  it  is  three 
hundred  and  seventy-five  and  a  half  feet.  The  cost  is 
believed  to  be  about  one  million  five  hundred  thousand 
dollars,  and  the  weight  sixty-eight  million  tons. 

The  Commercial  buildings,  Broadway,  New  York,  are 
twelve  stories  high,  arranged  in  the  form  of  a  two-hundred 
foot  cube,  and  cost  one  million  six  hundred  and  forty 
thousand  dollars  to  erect. 

The  City  Hall  at  Philadelphia  is  believed  to  be  the 
largest  building  of  any  kind  in  the  Western  Hemisphere, 
covering  an  area  of  four  and  a  half  acres  exclusive  of  the 
large  court-yard  in  the  centre.  The  central  tower  is  five 


BIG  BUSINESS  BUILDINGS.  23 

hundred  and  ton  feet  high,  being  tipped  with  a  statue  of 
William  Penn  that  increases  the  height  to  five  hundred 
and  forty-seven  feet.  This  structure  is  not,  however,  of 
the  class  described,  l>eing  properly  a  stone  building,  though 
steel  is  used  in  the  tower. 

The  Broad  Street  Station  of  the  Pennsylvania  Railroad 
is  the  tallest  business  building  in  Philadelphia,  rising  to  a 
height  of  two  hundred  and  forty  feet  at  one  corner.  The 
building  projKT  is  ten  stories  in  height,  and  has  a  frontage 
of  three  hundred  and  seven  feet. 

The  Bet/  office  building  on  Broad  Street,  Philadelphia, 
is  of  thirteen  stories,  and  one  hundred  and  ninety-four 
feet  above  the  sidewalk. 

The  Masonic  Temple,  corner  of  State  and  Randolph 
Streets,  Chicago,  has  twenty  stories,  and  rises  two  hundred 
and  seventy-four  feet  from  the  street  level.  It  has  four- 
teen elevators. 

The  Reliance  building,  corner  of  Washington  and  State 
Streets,  Chicago,  has  sixteen  stories,  and  is  a  trifle  over 
two  hundred  feet  in  height. 

The  Ames  building  in  Boston  measures  one  hundred 
and  eighty-six  feet  from  the  sidewalk  to  the  top  of  the 
cornice,  and  has  thirteen  stories.  It  is  the  tallest  of  its 
kind  in  New  England,  and  cost  about  nine  hundred  thou- 
sand dollars. 

It  is  difficult  to  form  an  opinion  as  to  how  much  higher 
the  big  buildings  of  the  future  may  rise,  but  it  may  be 
safely  estimated  that  thirty-  or  even  forty-story  buildings 
are  to  be  expected  within  a  score  of  years,  and  that  it  is 
mechanically  possible  to  erect  steel  buildings  a  fifth  of  a 
mile  in  height,  the  only  serious  objection  being  the  cost. 
These  advances  would  be  no  more  surprising  for  the  close 
of  the  twentieth  century  than  the  fact  that  fifteen  buildings, 


24 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


BIO  BUSINESS  BUILDIXGS.  25 

ranging  between  ten  and  twenty-three  stories,  were  begun 
in  New  York  City  during  the  year  1894,  a  year  of  general 
financial  depression. 

Some  reference  to  the  dimensions  of  the  Eiffel  Tower 
seems  appropriate  here  for  purposes  of  comparison,  since  it 
was  the  first  large  iron  structure  ever  attempted,  and  ojx»ned 
the  eyes  of  architects  and  builders  to  what  was  |>ossiblc 
where  steel  or  iron  is  substituted  for  stone.  The  tower 
consists,  essentially,  of  a  pyramid  comjx>sed  of  four  great 
columns,  independent  of  each  other,  and  connected  together 
only  by  belts  of  girders  at  the  different  stories  until  the 
columns  unite  towards  the  top  of  the  tower,  where  they 
are  connected  by  bracing.  There  are  four  independent 
foundations,  each  standing  at  one  angle  of  a  square,  about 
three  hundred  feet  apart  measuring  from  centre  to  centre. 
The  piers  are  built  upon  l>eds  of  concrete  seven  feet  in 
thickness,  two  of  them  being  sunk  by  caissons  much 
lower  than  the  others,  because  of  the  soft  soil  encoun- 
tered. Kach  pier  was  built  with  one  face  vertical  towards 
the  centre  of  the  tower,  the  outer  corresponding  face  l>eing 
inclined  at  the  same  angle  as  the  column  of  the  tower.  The 
other  two  faces  are  vertical  and  parallel.  The  load  carried 
by  the  piers  is  about  three  tons  to  the  square  foot.  From 
the  top  of  the  lightning  conductor  to  the  ground-level  is 
one  thousand  feet,  but  the  tower  proper  terminates  at  a 
height  of  eight  hundred  and  ninety-six  feet,  with  a  platform 
about  fifty -three  feet  square.  The  width  of  the  column  at 
this  level  is  thirty-three  feet,  the  gallery  being  carried  by 
brackets.  Above  the  platform  rises  the  campanile.  Four 
latticed  arched  girders  rise  diagonally  from  each  corner  of 
the  lower  part  of  the  campanile  and  unite  fifty-four  feet 
above  the  platform.  By  means  of  a  spiral  staircase,  often 
in  the  clouds,  another  gallery  is  reached,  this  one  being 
B  3 


26  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

only  nineteen  feet  in  diameter,  and  surrounding  the  lantern 
which  crowns  the  edifice,  at  the  height  of  nine  hundred 
and  eighty-four  feet.  Yet  above  his  rises  the  lightning 
conductor.  Elevators  of  various  kinds  run  to  the  differ- 
ent levels.  The  complete  success  of  the  structure  has 
given  it  a  fame  equalling  that  of  any  of  the  so-called  seven 
wonders  of  the  world. 

The  query  naturally  arises,  in  closing,  What  will  our  big 
cities  be  like  in  another  century,  if  men  insist  on  crowding 
them  full  of  steel  towers  ?  It  is  hard  to  predict  the  result, 
but  it  looks  very  much  as  though  the  denizens  of  small 
buildings,  of  say  ten  stories  and  under,  would  have  to  be 
satisfied  with  artificial  light  and  mechanically  induced 
breezes,  for  Nature's  supply  of  both  will  be  shut  out. 


EXTRAORDINARY    BRIDGES. 

A    Comparison  of   the   Hanging    Highways  of  the  World,  with 
Dimensions  of  Important  Structures. 

BEFORE  the  introduction  of  structural  iron  and  steel, 
really  great  bridges  were  impossible,  as  spans  were  limited 
to  the  capacity  of  stone  arches,  which  have  to  be  constructed 
on  wooden  centring  that  is  removed  after  the  keystone  is 
in  place.  So  far  as  known,  the  first  arched  stone  bridge  of 
any  size  was  built  at  Stratford,  on  the  Lea,  about  the  year 
1118.  It  was  a  toll-bridge,  and  this  singular  entry  was 
found  among  the  list  of  charges  :  "  For  every  cart  carrying 
a  dead  Jew,  eight  pence." 

The  first  iron  bridge  attempted  was  at  Lyons,  France, 
in  1755.  It  was  to  have  been  an  arch,  but  the  work  was 
abandoned,  after  a  portion  of  the  iron  had  been  made,  be- 


EXTRAORDINARY  BRIDGES.  27 

cause  of  the  great  expense.  In  1777-79  the  first  iron 
bridge  was  built  in  England,  over  the  Severn  River,  in 
Shropshire,  the  place  taking  the  name  Ironbridge.  It 
stands  to-day  a  monument  to  the  durability  of  cast  iron. 
Its  design  is  that  of  an  arch,  of  one  hundred  feet  SJKIII  and 
forty-five  feet  rise.  The  next  iron  bridge  built  was  also 
in  England,  at  Wearmouth,  in  Devonshire.  This  was  no 
mean  structure,  Ix'ing  in  the  form  of  a  segmental  arch  of 
two  hundred  and  thirty-six  ft>et  span,  and  costing  alnmt 
twenty-seven  thousand  |xmnds.  Not  until  ISO.'J  was  the 
first  iron  bridge  actually  erected  in  France,  l>cing  thrown 
across  the  Seine  at  Paris.  It  has  nine  arches,  and  a  total 
length  of  five  hundred  and  sixteen  feet.  Other  cast-iron 
bridges  followed  rapidly,  until  the  improved  methods  of 
making  wrought  iron  caused  it  to  be  substituted.  Within 
recent  years  wrought  iron  is  giving  place  to  mild  steel, 
which  is  as  cheap  and  considerably  stronger  for  the  same 
weight. 

The  first  susj>ension  bridge  built  was  over  Menai  Straits, 
in  North  Wales,  in  1820-20,  at  a  eost  of  twenty  thousand 
pounds.  The  suspension  was  accomplished  by  means  of 
sixtwn  great  chains.  The  length  of  the  bridge  over  all  is 
a  third  of  a  mile,  the  suspended  portion  Ix'ing  five  hundred 
and  seventy-nine  feet  in  length.  The  success  of  this  caused 
another  suspension  bridge  to  be  built  at  Vienna  across  the 
Danube  two  years  later.  The  susjwnded  portion  of  this 
wits  three  hundred  and  thirty-four  feet,  and  linked  steel 
bars  were  used  instead  of  chains.  Shortly  afterwards  a 
bridge  of  wire  chains,  eight  hundred  and  seventy  feet  long, 
was  built  at  Fribourg,  Switzerland. 

The  famous  Britannia  Tubular  Bridge  across  Menai 
Straits  was  built  in  1846-50,  and  is  so  named  because 
constructed  of  two  independent  continuous  tubes  or  beams. 


28  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

Each  of  the  tubes  is  fifteen  hundred  and  eleven  feet  long 
and  thirty  feet  in  diameter.  They  rest  on  three  piers  and 
two  abutments.  The  structure  is  satisfactory,  but  as  its 
weight  is  three  times  that  of  a  girder  bridge  of  the  same 
strength,  it  is  never  likely  to  be  imitated. 

M.  Gustav  Eiffel,  the  same  who  built  the  famous  tower, 
designed  a  bridge  or  viaduct  that  crosses  the  Truyere 
Valley  at  Garabit,  and  presents  some  remarkable  features 
of  construction.  It  is  fifteen  hundred  feet  long,  four  hun- 
dred feet  high,  and  its  centre  rests  on  a  metallic  arch  of 
five  hundred  and  forty-one  feet  span.  It  is  built  of  lat- 
ticed girders,  after  the  fashion  of  the  Eiffel  Tower. 

The  monarch  among  bridges  is  the  gigantic  cantilever 
over  the  Frith  of  Forth  in  Scotland.  Its  magnitude  is 
best  illustrated  by  comparison  with  other  large  bridges,  as 
in  the  accompanying  drawing,  where  it  is  shown  grouped 
with  three  remarkable  American  bridges.  How  it  dwarfs 
them  !  Yet  the  smallest  of  the  four  cost  six  million  five 
hundred  and  thirty-six  thousand  seven  hundred  and  thirty 
dollars,  and  was  seven  years  in  building.  It  spans  the 
river  at  St.  Louis  in  three  grand  arches,  each  of  over  five 
hundred  feet.  Fourteen  men  died  from  the  effects  of 
working  in  the  compressed  air  essential  to  the  sinking  of 
the  caissons  for  its  piers,  which  had  to  be  carried  down 
one  hundred  and  ten  feet  below  the  water.  This  work  is 
not  now  so  dangerous,  owing  to  improved  methods.  The 
Poughkeepsie  bridge,  which  ranks  next  in  the  group,  cost 
less  than  three  million  dollars — an  astonishingly  econom- 
ical figure,  when  we  consider  that  it  has  five  spans  of  over 
five  hundred  feet  each,  besides  shorter  spans  on  each  shore 
of  approach,  and  rises  to  allow  a  vessel-clearance  of  one 
hundred  and  seventy  feet,  in  which  respect  it  excels  the 
Forth  bridge.  The  second  in  the  group  is  the  New  York- 


EXTRAORDINARY  BRIDGES. 


29 


Brooklyn  bridge,  the  proudest  structure  of  its  kind  on  the 
Western  Hemisphere.  It  cost  about  six  million  dollars, 
exclusive  of  land  damages.  ItsS  central  span  is  1  ">(Jo  feet 
lon<r,  the  towers  are  alxjut  two  hundred  feet  total  height, 
and  the  anchorages  contain  fifty-six  thousand  cubic  vards 
of  masonry.  It  is  crossed  by  more  ]>eople  daily  than  any 
other  bridge  in  the  world. 

COMPARISON    OF    FOUR    FAMOUS    RRIIXiES. 


Site 


Forth. 


Hrooklvn. 


I'ough- 


St.  Louis. 


I'artiallv 

Alternate 

Type  of  Construction    

Steel  can- 
tilevers. 

stiffened 
suspension 

rant  l  lever 
and  trusses 

Steel 
arches. 

win?  ca- 
bles. 

of  steel. 

Length  of  bridge  in  each  case 

without  the  approaches,  but 

including  the  anchorage  or 

abutment 

5100  feet. 

3700  feet. 

31UO  feet. 

1700  feet 

Longest  span  of  each  bridge. 

centre  to  centre  of  hearing    . 

1710  feet 

1596  feet. 

530  feet 

520  feet 

Number  of  railroad  tracks  that 

can  lie  used  for  trains  .  . 

2 

2 

2 

2 

Capacity,  expressed  in  number 

of    freight  trains,  each   live 

hundred  feet  long  and  weigh- 

ing    eight     hundred     tons, 

which  each  longest  span  may 

carry  with   the  same  coeffi- 

cient of  safety  

4\4 

\\s 

2 

2 

Capacity,  expressed  in  number 

of  passenger  trains,  each  five 

hundred  feet  long,  weighing 
five,  hundred  and   fifty  tons 

fully    loaded,    which     each 

longest   span   may  carry   in 

ordinary  operation        .... 

6 

2 

2 

2 

Average  weight  of  superstruc- 

ture.-per  lineal  foot  of  span    . 
Average  weight  of  steel    and 

19,200  Ibs. 

7400  Ibs. 

8200  Ibs. 

8600  Ibs. 

iron    of   superstructure    per 

lineal  foot  of  span,  without 

rails,  railings,  and  floorings  . 

18,400  Ibs. 

6200  Ibs. 

7300  Ibs. 

7000  Ibs. 

Average   weight   of  steel   and 

iron    of    Kujierstructure    per 

lineal  foot  of  track  without 

rails,  railings,  and  floorings  . 
Total  cost  of  construction  with- 

9200 Ibs. 

8100  Ibs. 

3650  Ibs. 

3500  Ibs. 

out  approaches,  without  right 

of  way.  and  without  interest 

account  .... 

$13,000,000 

$5600000 

$2600  000 

$5300000 

Cost  per  lineal  foot  of  bridge    . 
Cost  per  lineal  foot  of  track  .  . 

1,203 

1.610 
805 

'840 
420 

.;.].-•" 
1,575 

3* 


30 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


By  the  table  it  will  be  seen  that  the  great  Forth  bridge 
exceeds  the  others  even  more  in  its  carrying  capacity  than 
in  its  size.  Its  piers  are  sunk  ninety  feet  below  high 
water,  and  the  caisson  work  on  them  was  done  under  an 
air  pressure  of  from  ten  to  thirty-five  pounds.  The  two 
main  spans  are  each  seventeen  hundred  and  ten  feet  (or 
about  one-third  of  a  mile)  long,  and  the  shore  spans  are 
six  hundred  and  seventy- five  feet  each.  The  main  towers 
are  three  hundred  and  sixty  feet  above  the  level  of  high 
water.  This  gives  an  extreme  height  from  the  river  bed- 
rock to  the  top  of  towers  of  four  hundred  and  fifty  feet. 
The  total  length  with  approaches  is  nearly  two  miles.  It 
is  justly  considered  the  greatest  engineering  structure  in 
the  world.  One  of  its  enormous  spans  weighs  seventeen 
thousand  nine  hundred  tons,  or  the  equivalent  of  twenty- 
five  heavily-loaded  freight  trains.  If  clumsily  designed, 
it  would  sink  of  its  own  weight.  The  main  compression 

FIG.  4. 


9  I  :  —      _     ; 

*•      .  -*i-—  930- # 1595V 


members  of  the  cantilevers  (as  the  vast  balanced  frames 
are  called)  are  tubes  of  twelve  feet  diameter  and  one  and 
a  quarter  to  one  and  seven-eighths  inches  thick,  this  form 
giving  the  most  strength  with  the  least  weight.  Each  of 
these  tubes  is  subject  to  a  strain  of  two  thousand  five 
hundred  and  fifty-five  tons  of  dead  load,  eleven  hundred 


EXTRAORDINARY  BRIDGES.  31 

and  forty-five  tons  live  or  moving  load,  and  three  thou- 
sand two  hundred  and  seventy  tons  of  wind  pressure. 
The  plate's  of  which  all  the  cylindrical  columns  are  made 
are  l>ent  into  shape  while  hot  U'tween  |>owerful  rolls,  an 
extra  pressure  Inking  applied  in  a  final  roll  when  nearly 
eold  to  prevent  them  from  twisting.  The  site  of  the 
bridge  is  the  scene  of  frequent  .-torms,  for  which  reason 
an  allowance  of  fiftv-six  pounds  JKT  square  foot  of  strength 
was  made  for  wind  pressure. 

The  suspension  bridge  In-low  Niagara  Falls  has  been 
widely  descrilxnl  and  illustrated.  It  was  built  in  18.VJ, 
but  so  many  great  bridges  have  l>een  built  since  then  that 
its  length  of  eight  hundred  and  twenty-one  feet  now  seems 
little.  It  is  two  hundred  and  forty-five  feet  alx>ve  the 
water. 

The  vibration  on  wire-rope  susj>ensioii  bridges  is  very 
great,  and  was  not  at  first  fully  appreciated  by  engineers. 
The  first  train  (and  the  last  also)  that  was  run  over  the 
three-hundred-foot  bridge  at  Stockton,  California,  at  the 
usual  train  s|>eed  of  thirty  miles  an  hour,  was  cheeked  by 
a  wave  of  vibrations  that  rose  before  the  locomotive  to  a 
height  of  two  feet.  After  that  the  train  sj)eed  on  the 
bridge  was  limited  to  three  miles  an  hour. 

Among  interesting  foreign  bridges  the  following  may 
be  named  :  The  bridge  over  the  Hooghly  River  at  Cal- 
cutta, built  of  iron  girders,  and  resting  on  twenty -eight 
pontoons.  It  is  elevated  to  allow  the  passage  of  small 
river  craft,  and  is  fifteen  hundred  and  thirty  feet  long  and 
sixty-three  feet  wide.  The  Chilean  State  Railway  bridge, 
over  the  Mallen  River,  which  it  crosses  at  a  height  of 
three  hundred  and  thirty-three  feet.  It  is  fourteen  hun- 
dred and  nineteen  feet  in  length,  and  includes  five  spans. 
The  movable  ferry  bridge  at  Bilboa,  Spain.  This  is  simply 


32  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

a  high  iron -girder  bridge,  which,  instead  of  having  a  road- 
way, bears  a  large  basket-like  platform,  or  car,  swung  un- 
derneath so  that  it  may  be  run  across  by  a  travelling  crane, 
carrying  over  a  load  of  passengers  and  freight.  It  is 
built  high  to  admit  of  the  passing  of  vessels,  and  it  has  the 
advantage  that  no  shore  approaches  are  required,  thus 
lessening  the  cost  materially.  The  span  is  about  five  hun- 
dred feet,  and  one  hundred  and  fifty  passengers  may  be 
carried  across  at  a  time,  the  trip  occupying  only  one 
minute. 

A  bridge  is  planned  to  cross  the  Hudson  at  New  York 
City  with  a  single  span,  connecting  the  States  of  New 
York  and  New  Jersey.  It  is  to  cost  twenty-five  million 
dollars,  and  will  be  the  largest  as  well  as  the  most  costly 
bridge  on  the  globe.  There  appears  to  be  no  doubt  that  it 
will  be  begun  at  an  early  date.  The  great  bridge  will  be 
of  the  suspension  type,  the  clear  span  being  one  hundred 
and  fifty  feet  in  height  and  three  thousand  one  hundred 
and  ten  feet  (nearly  two-thirds  of  a  mile)  in  length.  This 
is  almost  double  the  span  of  the  famous  Forth  bridge. 
On  the  New  York  side  will  be  approaches  of  five  hundred 
and  seventy-five  feet  span  and  four  hundred  feet  span  re- 
spectively. On  the  New  Jersey  side  the  approaches  are 
made  up  of  short  deck  spans.  The  two  main  towers  will 
be  five  hundred  and  eighty-seven  feet  above  high  water,  or 
about  seven  hundred  feet  from  the  bottom  of  the  founda- 
tions. These  towers  will  have  eight  legs,  braced  in  two 
directions,  and  resting  upon  masonry  piers  set  on  the  bed- 
rock. The  main  steel  cables,  twelve  in  number,  will  be 
twenty-three  inches  in  diameter,  and  will  bear  a  tensile 
strain  of  one  hundred  and  eighty  thousand  pounds  per 
square  inch.  Six  tracks  will  cross  the  bridge  on  a  level, 
and  each  track  is  designed  to  bear  three  thousand  pounds 


EXTRAORDINARl'  BRIDGES.  33 

load  JKT  lineal  foot.  The  load  upon  these  tracks  will  l>e 
distributed  by  the  use  of  stiffening  trusses  every  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-five  feet.  The  trusses  will  IK'  of  how- 
string  design,  and  will  IK?  constructed  of  high-grade  medium 
steel.  A  svsteni  of  lateral  bracing  is  provided  at  the  floor 
level  to  resist  wind  pressure.  There  is  also  a  vertical  set 
of  vibration  braces  at  each  panel  |>oint,  connected  with 
top  chord  lateral  bracing.  The  ends  of  the  cables  will  IK* 
set  into  anchorages  of  masonry  made  by  running  long  tun- 
nels under  ground. 

Among  drawbridges  the  swinging  form  has  l)omme  the 
more  jM>pular  ty|x'.  They  might  bettor  be  called  rotating 
than  swing  bridges,  because  they  have  a  purely  rotary 
motion.  The  mechanism  of  the  pivot-centre  of  a  sub- 
stantial type,  as  made  by  William  Sellers  A:  Co.,  is  shown 
herewith.  The  weight  is  designed  to  IK?  carried  ujxm  the 
plates  of  the  centre-jx^t,  the  rollers  of  the  circular  track 
simply  serving  to  prevent  tipping. 

The  longest  bridge  in  the  United  States  spans  the  Ohio 
River  at  Caire>,  Illine)is.  It  is  ten  thousand  five  hundred 
and  sixty  feet,  most  of  which  is  taken  up  in  the  ajv- 
pr< >aches.  It  has  seven  principal  spans  and  forty  three 
minor  ones.  Over  twenty-one  million  jMmnds  of  steel 
enter  into  its  construction,  besides  thirty-two  thousand 
yards  e>f  masonry.  Another  bridge  over  the  Ohio  River 
at  Cincinnati  is  a  trifle  over  six  thousand  feet  long,  and  is 
principally  remarkable  for  the  very  large  steel  girders  used 
in  its  construction,  many  of  them  weighing  thirty-seven 
thousand  tons  each.  The  largest  cantilevers  used  in  a 
bridge  in  this  country  are  across  the  Colorado  River  just 
below  the  Needles,  where  there  is  a  span  of  nine  hundreel 
and  ninety  feet.  The  Memphis  (Tennessee)  bridge  over 
the  Mississippi  is  a  notable  structure.  The  longest  of 


34 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


its  three  main  spans  is  seven  hundred  and  twenty  feet.    It 

is  built  on  the  cantilever  principle  and  rests  on  four  piers. 

Iron  bridges  are  commonly  made  of  trusses,  which  bear 

various  names.     Among  the  most  common  is  the  Howe 


FIG.  5. 


PIVOT-CENTRE  FOR  SWING-BRIDGE. 


truss,  consisting  of  X-shaped  braces  between  beams  or 
girders.  The  triangular  or  Y-shaped  truss  is  also  com- 
mon. The  parabolic  truss  is  a  comparatively  new  and 
handsome  form,  and  is  shown  in  Figure  6.  The  lattice 
form  of  girder  is  also  a  favorite  style  of  construction. 


EXTRA  07?/>/.V.-l  R Y  BRIDGES. 


35 


It  has  an  upjM-r  and  a  lower  U-ani  connected  by  a  lattice- 
work of  crossed  l)ars.  Tlu*  plate  bridge  or  plate-girder 
bridge  is  made  of  very  wide  steel  beams,  usually  in  cross 
section  resembling  an  I.  Such  bridges  are  called  deck 
bridges  when  the  roadway  is  on  a  level  with  the  top  of  the 
trusses,  through  bridgis  when  the  roadway  passes  Ix-tween 
the  trusses  on  a  line  with  the  lower  In-ams,  and  hall-deck 
when  the  roadway  is  midway  of  the  trusses. 

FKJ.  6. 


HIGHWAY   BRIDGE  AT  BIXOHAJITON.  HEW   YORK. 

Bridge-building  is  undoubtedly  on  the  increase,  and 
with  the  deereased  priee  of  steel,  together  with  the  in- 
creased strains  which  it  is  made  to  bear,  we  may  rca^on- 
ably  expect  to  see  many  more  such  mammoth  structures 
as  that  contemplated  over  the  Hudson.  Indeed,  greater 
ones  are  possible  with  present  materials,  and  the  cost  is 
the  only  thing  that  prevents  the  building  of  spans  a  mile 
in  length.  As  materials  cheapen,  and  the  world's  ideas 
of  necessity  and  convenience  advance,  probably  the  one- 
mile  span  will  spring  into  being. 


36  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

SOME    GREAT   TUNNELS. 

Methods  of  blasting  through  Mountains,  driving  Shields  under 
Rivers,  and  forcing  Needles  under  City  Streets. 

NEXT  to  the  aspiration  for  fame  that  leads  men  to  erect 
sky-kissing  towers,  there  comes  the  desire  to  dig  far  down 
into  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  to  scorn  the  opposing  moun- 
tain that  will  not  be  crossed,  and  make  a  straight  road 
through  its  vitals  to  daylight.  No  engineering  feats  are 
more  interesting  and  none  have  called  for  grander  genius 
than  the  construction  of  great  tunnels.  According  to  an 
estimate  of  1894,  there  are  in  the  world  about  eleven  hun- 
dred and  forty-two  tunnels  worthy  of  the  name.  One 
thousand  of  these  have  been  built  for  railway  purposes, 
and  their  total  length  is  three  hundred  and  fifty  miles. 
Twelve  are  subaqueous,  affording  passage  under  rivers, 
and  of  a  total  length  of  nine  miles.  Ninety  have  been 
built  to  allow  the  passage  of  canals,  and  their  length  is 
seventy  miles.  Forty  have  been  made  as  conduits  for 
various  commercial  purposes,  and  their  length  is  eighty- 
five  miles,  the  total  length  being  five  hundred  and  fourteen 
miles,  or  about  half  a  mile  each.  These  figures  seem 
disappointingly  small  at  first  sight,  but  the  work  in  spe- 
cial cases  has  proved  sufficiently  difficult  to  satisfy  the 
most  exacting  seeker  after  onerous  and  arduous  engineer- 
ing enterprises. 

When  ancient  Babylon  was  in  her  prime,  a  tunnel  of 
masonry  was  constructed  at  that  point  under  the  mighty 
Euphrates.  The  Romans  also  built  many  tunnels,  the 
most  important  of  which  was  the  one  constructed  to  drain 
Lake  Fucinus,  which  was  built  shortly  after  the  time  of 
Christ.  It  was  three  and  a  half  miles  long,  and  had 
twenty-two  perpendicular  shafts,  some  of  them  four  hun- 


SOME  GREAT  TUNXELS.  37 

dred  feet  long,  serving  to  curry  away  the  waste  dirt  and 
to  convey  supplies  to  the  workers.  Copper  hoisting- 
buckets  were  used  in  these  shafts  and  oj>erated  by  wind- 
lasses from  alx>ve.  The  enormous  numl>er  of  thirty  thou- 
sand men  are  said  to  have  been  employed  in  the  tedious 
task  of  digging  it  by  hand  labor. 

There  are  four  mountain  tunnels  that  are  regarded  as 
among  modern  wonders  of  engineering.  They  are  the 
Hoosae,  Mount  Cenis,  St.  Gothard,  and  Arll>erg.  The 
Hoosac  is  almost  five  miles  in  length,  and  occupied  twenty 
years  in  the  building,  at  a  cost  of  about  sixteen  million 
dollars.  The  Mount  Cenis,  seven  and  five-eighths  miles 
long,  occupied  fourteen  years,  at  a  cost  of  fifteen  million 
dollars.  The  St.  Gothard,  the  greatest  of  all,  nine  and  a 
half  miles  in  length,  was  finished  in  nine  years,  at  a  cost 
of  eleven  million  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  thousand 
dollars.  The  Arlberg,  six  and  three-eighths  miles  long, 
occupied  three  and  a  half  years  in  construction,  and  the 
cost  was  seven  million  three  hundred  thousand  dollars. 
They  are  given  in  the  order  of  their  construction,  the 
Hoosac  being  begun  in  1855,  Mount  Cenis  in  1857,  St. 
Gothard  in  1872,  and  Arlberg  in  1880. 

It  will  be  observed  that  the  time  and  cost  per  mile  were 
reduced  in  each  succeeding  work.  A  large  ]>ortion  of  the 
work  on  the  first  two  was  done  by  hand,  with  very  ineffi- 
cient machinery.  The  Hoosac  was  in  many  respects  the 
most  difficult  feat  of  the  four,  since  it  was  the  first  of  its 
kind,  and  involved  many  problems  previously  untried,  and 
it  is  gratifying  to  think  that  if  European  engineers  have 
surpassed  Americans  in  the  size  and  number  of  their  great 
tunnels,  at  least  our  engineers  showed  them  the  way,  and 
made  success  easier  in  later  examples. 

The  Hoosac  passes  under  two  mountains,  one  fourteen 

4 


38  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

hundred  feet  and  the  other  seventeen  hundred  feet  higher 
than  the  level  of  the  tunnel.  Between  them  is  a  valley 
or  gorge  whose  bottom  lies  within  a  thousand  feet  of  the 
tunnel  roof.  In  this  gorge  the  work  was  begun,  and  a 
shaft  sunk  to  the  grade  of  the  tunnel,  which  here  reaches 
its  highest  point.  From  the  shaft  tunnelling  was  begun 
both  ways,  which,  with  the  headings  sunk  at  the  extremi- 
ties of  the  route,  enabled  the  work  to  progress  in  four 
directions.  It  was  remarked  of  the  Mount  Cenis  tunnel 
that  the  engineers  must  have  been  very  sure  of  their 
measurements,  since  they  worked  from  both  ends.  Our 
engineers  set  themselves  a  doubly  difficult  task  of  the 
same  sort,  and  their  four  roads  met  in  the  bowels  of  the 
mountains  with  an  error  of  only  two  or  three  inches.  The 
last  ten  years  of  their  work  were  considerably  lightened 
by  the  introduction  of  the  compressed-air  rock-drill,  which 
came  into  use  about  1865  for  drilling  blasting-holes. 

The  most  important  of  the  railway  tunnels  made  in  the 
United  States  within  recent  years  is  the  Stampede  or  Cas- 
cade tunnel,  on  the  line  of  the  Northern  Pacific  Railway. 
This  tunnel  is  over  two  thousand  eight  hundred  feet  above 
the  sea  level,  and  is  nine  thousand  eight  hundred  and  fifty 
feet  long.  The  difficulties  of  its  construction  were  in- 
creased by  the  fact  that  the  work  had  to  be  done  in  a  wild 
unsettled  region,  and  that  the  contractor  was  allowed  only 
twenty-eight  months  in  which  to  complete  the  undertaking. 
It  was  finished  in  1889,  exactly  on  time.  A  description 
of  the  methods  of  work  will  serve  to  show  how  all  such 
tunnels  are  now  constructed.  The  points  of  entrance  to 
the  mountain  having  been  decided  upon,  they  were  accu- 
rately located  as  to  line  by  taking  a  sight  survey  across 
the  top  of  the  mountain.  This  was  done  with  a  transit 
so  accurately  that  the  headings  met  within  an  inch  of  the 


SOME  GREAT  TUNNELS.  39 

calculated  points.  The  contractors  then  built  a  railroad 
across  the  mountains  for  their  own  use,  at  a  cost  of  four 
hundred  thousand  dollars.  Curiously  enough,  they  sold  it 
afterwards  at  a  good  profit.  After  some  six  months  sj>ent  in 
building  this  road  and  getting  the  tools  and  machinery  on 
the  ground  the  real  work  was  begun.  The  headings  were 
run  in  two  levels  or  steps,  the  upjier  level  being  kept  about 
thirty  feet  in  advance  of  the  lower  level.  This  allows! 
the  using  of  about  twice  as  many  men  and  machines  for 
drilling  as  could  have  been  accommodated  if  the  work  had 
been  all  done  on  one  level.  It  permitted  the  men  working 
on  the  upper  level  to  bore  downward,  as  well  as  into  the 
face  of  the  rock,  more  than  doubling  the  area  of  rock 
available  for  drilling.  The  blasting-holes  were  drilled 
about  five  feet  apart  and  twelve  feet  deep.  In  soft  rock 
each  drill  was  expected  to  bore  six  or  seven  of  these  holes 
in  five  hours,  when  all  hands  retired  to  get  out  of  the  way 
of  the  blast.  Four  hundred  pounds  of  powder  were  used 
for  such  a  blast  Of  course  if  the  rock  was  specially  hard 
the  work  progressed  more  slowly,  and  sometimes  only  five 
or  six  feet  of  advance  were  made  to  a  blast,  after  fifteen 
hours  of  hard  drilling.  By  using  two  shifts  of  men,  work 
was  kept  up  night  and  day,  and  an  average  advance  of 
nearly  seven  feet  a  day  was  obtained  in  each  heading. 
About  three  hundred  and  fifty  men  were  on  the  pay-rolls 
during  the  whole  period,  and  thirteen  of  them  were  killed 
by  accidents,  which  was  considered  to  be  below  the  average 
record. 

The  work  of  timbering  progressed  with  the  drilling  and 
blasting,  and  interfered  with  the  drillers  about  one-fourth 
of  the  time.  The  tracks  were  laid  close  after  the  work- 
men, so  as  to  run  cars  back  and  forth  for  removing  the 
debris.  A  novel  arrangement,  designed  especially  for 


40  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

this  work,  was  in  the  use  of  a  sort  of  two-story  flat-car, 
built  to  run  entirely  above  and  around  the  ordinary  dump- 
cars,  so  that  when  they  met  in  the  tunnel  the  dump-cars 
passed  underneath  the  big  car  which  ran  on  outer  tracks. 
This  big,  two-story  car  was  the  same  height  as  the  upper 
level  on  which  the  workmen  operated  the  drills,  and  was 
used  to  carry  off  the  upper  rock  and  earth  after  blasting. 
The  contract  price  for  this  tunnel  was  one  million  one 
hundred  and  sixty  thousand  dollars,  but  the  Northern 
Pacific  Kailroad  found  it  necessary  later  to  put  in  masonry 
arches  and  concrete  to  protect  the  rock,  which  was  shale, 
from  the  damaging  moisture  of  the*  atmosphere,  which 
work  added  materially  to  the  cost. 

The  Croton  aqueduct  in  New  York  is  properly  a  tunnel, 
though  it  does  not  go  by  that  name.  It  is  thirty  miles 
long,  and  almost  wholly  under  ground.  It  is  not  only  the 
longest  but  the  most  costly  of  modern  tunnels,  the  expense 
being  about  twenty-four  million  dollars. 

The  tunnelling  of  rivers  to  secure  a  convenient  means 
of  crossing  without  interfering  with  navigation,  suggested 
itself  in  ancient  times,  but  the  first  modern  instance  was 
about  1800,  when  the  Thames  tunnel  was  projected.  So 
little  interest  was  taken  in  this,  however,  that  it  fizzled 
along  for  over  forty  years  before  completion.  The  greatest 
subaqueous  tunnels  have  been  built  by  the  English,  those 
under  the  Severn  and  Mersey  being  each  nearly  five  miles 
in  length,  the  former  over  five  miles  if  the  approaches  be 
included.  It  was  built  at  a  cost  greatly  in  excess  of  the 
original  estimates,  the  soft  soil  being  subject  to  a  leakage 
almost  impossible  to  overcome.  Twice  during  tunnelling 
operations  the  work  was  flooded,  with  loss  of  life  and 
great  damage.  Had  the  difficulties  been  fully  foreseen 
at  the  outset  it  never  would  have  been  undertaken,  as  it 


SOME  GREAT  TUXXELS. 


41 


affords  only  a  slight  saving  in  time  of  travel.  But  the 
British  spirit  is  apt  to  carry  things  through,  and  this 
tunnel  stands  as  an  example  of  man's  triumph  over  the 
forces  of  nature. 

Fro.  7. 


CAISSON  IN  COURSE  OF  CONSTRUCTION  FOR  BLACK  WALL  TUNNEL,  UNDER  THAMES. 

In  subaqueous  tunnelling  the  hydraulic  shield  is  com- 
monly used.  This  is  the  invention  of  Alfred  E.  Beach, 
of  New  York.  It  was  used  with  success  on  the  tunnel 
under  the  St.  Clair  River  at  Sarnia  for  the  Grand  Trunk 
Railway  of  Canada.  This  tunnel  is  six  thousand  feet 
long,  two  thousand  three  hundred  feet  being  under  the 
river  bottom.  It  was  finished  in  1890,  and  a  description 
of  the  methods  employed  will  serve  to  give  a  fair  idea  of 
modern  methods  of  building  river  tunnels.  The  soil  was 
principally  soft  clay,  with  occasional  beds  of  gravel  and 

4* 


42  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

quicksands.  This  is  usual  in  river  beds,  and  as  a  conse- 
quence the  methods  of  work  are  entirely  different  from 
those  employed  in  tunnelling  through  rock,  as  under  moun- 
tains. A  steel  cylindrical  shield  was  used,  twenty- one 
and  a  half  feet  in  diameter  and  fifteen  and  a  quarter  feet 
long.  It  was  made  of  one-inch  steel  plate,  and  was  forced 
forward  a  foot  and  a  half  at  a  time  by  a  series  of  hydraulic 
jacks  pressing  against  the  rear  edge.  These  jacks  were 
capable  of  exerting  a  thrust  of  three  thousand  tons,  hence 
the  shield  would  push  aside  any  ordinary  small  boulders 
that  might  chance  to  be  in  the  way.  The  shield  had  rear 
doors,  through  which  the  workmen  who  removed  the  clay, 
etc.,  might  escape  and  shut  off  the  flow  if  any  sudden 
stream  of  water  should  burst  in  on  them.  The  excavated 
material  was  passed  back  through  these  doors  and  run  out 
upon  small  dump-cars.  As  the  work  progressed  under  the 
river,  bulkheads  constituting  air-locks  were  placed  back 
of  the  workmen  and  compressed  air  supplied  them,  to  a 
pressure  sometimes  as  great  as  twenty-eight  pounds.  This 
served  as  a  check  to  keep  back  the  water,  which  otherwise 
would  have  flowed  in  almost  constantly.  As  the  shield 
was  pushed  forward,  cast-iron  rings  two  inches  thick  were 
inserted  behind  it.  By  making  these  rings  slightly  oval 
instead  of  circular,  a  ring  can  be  passed  into  place  through 
rings  of  the  same  size  by  simply  turning  it  so  that  its  nar- 
rowest diameter  comes  opposite  the  widest  diameter  of  the 
rings  already  in  place  and  forming  the  tunnel.  In  this 
tunnel,  however,  it  was  deemed  best  to  make  the  rings  in 
segments  and  bolt  them  together.  The  shield  was  made 
with  a  rear  hood  an  inch  larger  in  diameter  than  the  rings, 
and  the  latter  were  readily  put  in  place  within  the  protec- 
tion of  this  hood.  If  the  shield  showed  a  disposition  to 
work  to  one  side,  the  jacks  on  that  side  were  subjected  to 


SOME  GREAT  TUXXELS.  43 

a  trifle  more  pressure,  and  thus  the  work  was  kept  practi- 
cally in  line,  so  that  the  shields  from  the  opposite  sides  of 
the  river  met  accurately  in  the  centre  as  calculated.  The 
six  thousand  lift  of  shield  work  were  completed  in  just 
one  year,  and  at  no  time  was  there  serious  annoyance  from 
water.  Practically  the  same  method  has  been  used  in 
tunnelling  under  the  streets  of  cities,  where  it  was  im- 
portant not  to  interfere  with  buildings  al>ove.  The  Croton 
aqueduct  under  Broadway,  New  York,  is  built  in  this 
manner,  as  is  also  the  London  Electric  Underground  Rail- 
way tunnel. 

At  King's  Cross  Station  in  London  an  ingenious  system 
of  tunnelling  wits  successfully  used.  It  is  useful  in  a  clay 
soil,  and  consists  in  driving  sheet-iron  piles,  or  needles, 
through  the  clay  horizontally,  so  as  to  supi>ort  the  clay 
alx>ve  when  material  is  removed  from  below.  These 
needles  are  ten  and  a  half  lift  long  and  a  foot  wide,  and 
are  tongued  and  groved  like  matched  boards,  so  that  noth- 
ing can  work  through  between  them.  They  are  pushed 
forward  as  the  work  advances,  and  the  space  of  two 
inches  which  they  leave  vacant  is  filled  with  cement,  forced 
in  through  pipes  under  pressure.  In  this  way  foundations 
above  are  not  interfered  with  in  the  least.  This  is  cheaj)er 
than  shield-work,  and  quite  as  suitable  for  tunnelling  under 
cities. 

For  tunnelling  in  chalk  there  is  probably  no  better 
method  than  that  tried  in  the  proposed  tunnel  under  the 
English  Channel,  alx)iit  1882.  The  engineers  used  steel 
cutters,  mounted  upon  the  ends  of  a  rotating  arm.  This 
machine  cut  into  the  rock  at  a  rate  as  high  as  eighty- 
seven  feet  in  a  day  of  twenty-four  hours,  a  speed  never 
approached  in  any  other  tunnelling  operations.  Unfortu- 
nately, political  jealousies  have  prevented  the  completion 


44  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

of  this  work,  though  about  a  mile  of  progress  had  been 
made  on  each  end.  No  doubt  the  commercial  advantages 
of  such  a  tunnel  between  France  and  England  will  event- 
ually cause  the  resumption  of  this  interesting  tunnel,  and 
make  it  possible  for  Londoners  and  Parisians  to  travel 
back  and  forth  without  danger  of  sea-sickness. 


CANALS,    OLD   AND    NEW. 

A  Brief  Description   of    the    Great  Artificial  Waterways  of  the 
World,  with  a  Summary  of  Important  Proposed  Additions. 

THE  earliest  record  we  have  of  a  canal  enterprise  dates 
back  sixteen  hundred  years  before  Christ,  to  the  time  of 
Sesostris,  when,  according  to  tradition,  a  canal  existed 
across  the  Isthmus  of  Suez,  where  to-day  is  located  the 
greatest  canal  in  the  world.  It  is  very  possible  that  this 
is  true,  since  the  isthmus  is  nothing  but  a  sand  formation, 
and  may  have  been  very  much  narrower  in  those  days  than 
at  the  present  time.  The  great  Imperial  Canal  of  China 
was  built  many  hundreds  of  years  ago,  and  is  still  in  use. 
Canal-building  is  in  principle  the  simplest  of  engineering 
enterprises,  consisting  mainly  in  digging  a  path  for  water. 
There  are  other  problems  that  arise  in  a  country  where  hills 
and  streams  abound,  but  these  would  not  have  troubled 
the  ancient  Egyptians,  since  the  land  is  dry  and  sandy. 

Whether  this  time-honored  tradition  be  true  or  not,  it  is 
well  established  that  both  Darius  and  Nero  contemplated 
cutting  the  isthmus,  and  the  historian  Harcourt,  who  wrote  a 
book  on  "  Rivers  and  Canals,"  states  that  there  is  evidence 
that  a  canal  existed  here  from  600  B.C.  to  800  A.D.,  when  it 
was  allowed  to  fall  into  decay,  and  gradually  disappeared. 


CANALS,  OLD  AND   NEW.  45 

111  more  modern  times,  Pojx?  Sixtus  V.,  Louis  XIV.,  and 
Napoleon  I.  each  had  the  building  of  a  canal  at  the 
isthmus  under  advisement,  hut  without  ultimate  result. 

The  Dutch,  always  troubled  by  an  excess  of  water  in 
Flanders,  began  to  cut  canals  aUmt  the  twelfth  century, 
and  in  1560  they  finished  a  great  canal  connecting  Brussels 
with  the  Scheldt.  In  France,  the  first  canal  enterprise  of 
importance  was  the  Canal  du  Midi,  or  Languedoc,  which 
was  finished  in  1681.  This  was  a  really  great  enterprise, 
Ix'ing  one  hundred  and  forty  mill's  long,  and  costing  seven 
million  two  hundred  thousand  dollars.  It  has  one  hundred 
and  nineteen  locks,  but  is  hardly  a  ship-canal  in  the  mod- 
ern sense,  since  it  was  designed  to  contain  but  six  and  a 
half  feet  of  water.  Great  Britain's  first  canal  was  built 
in  1572. 

Canal-building  may  be  regarded  as  the  engineering  sci- 
ence of  the  eighteenth  century,  since  it  flourished  principally 
between  1725  and  the  era  of  railroads,  about  1S.30.  At  the 
time  that  Stephenson  ran  his  first  locomotive  there  were 
more  than  six  thousand  miles  of  canals  in  successful  oj>era- 
tion.  Probably  one-half  of  these  have  gone  into  disuse,  as 
they  were  designed  to  carry  freight,  which  is  now  more  con- 
veniently transported  by  rail.  Modern  canals  are  built 
usually  for  the  passage  of  large  ships  between  contiguous 
bodies  of  water.  Prominent  among  the  canals  of  the 
old  style  is  the  Erie  Canal,  three  hundred  and  sixty-three 
miles  long,  connecting  Lake  Erie  with  the  Hudson.  It 
was  finished  in  1825,  at  a  cost  of  fifty-one  million  six 
hundred  thousand  dollars.  There  have  been  in  all  about 
five  thousand  miles  of  canals  built  in  the  United  States, 
about  half  of  which  are  now  in  a  state  of  desuetude. 
England  has  four  thousand  seven  hundred  miles  of  canals, 
much  more  than  any  other  country  in  the  world. 


46  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

The  great  Suez  Canal,  which  made  De  Lesseps  famous, 
was  begun  in  1859,  and  finished  within  ten  years,  at  a  cost 
of  about  eighty-three  million  dollars.  It  is  ninety-five 
miles  long,  and  was  twenty -six  feet  deep,  but  since  1866 
workmen  have  been  engaged  in  deepening  it,  at  an  esti- 
mated cost  of  forty  million  dollars  more.  Its  annual  ton- 
nage, which  in  1870  was  four  hundred  and  thirty-six 
thousand  six  hundred  and  nine,  has  steadily  increased,  and 
is  now  over  ten  millions.  The  stock  is  quoted  at  about 
five  times  the  par  value. 

The  unfortunate  Panama  Canal  enterprise,  which  failed 
under  the  leadership  of  De  Lesseps,  was  to  have  been 
forty-seven  miles  long,  and  the  estimated  cost  was  one 
hundred  and  twenty  million  dollars.  It  was  begun  in 
1881,  and  two  hundred  and  fifty  million  dollars  were 
expended  in  completing  about  one-third  of  the  work,  when 
it  collapsed,  under  speculative  financiering,  amid  grave 
scandals. 

It  is  more  interesting  to  turn  to  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth 
Canal,  which  was  opened  in  1893,  after  nine  years'  labor. 
It  is  but  four  miles  long,  yet  saves  two  hundred  miles  of 
navigation,  and  is  expected  to  have  a  traffic  almost  half  as 
large  as  the  Suez  Canal.  Nero  began  a  canal  at  the  same 
place  eighteen  hundred  years  ago,  and  traces  of  his  work  are 
still  to  be  seen  in  the  vicinity.  That  tyrannical  monarch  is 
said  to  have  turned  the  first  sod  himself  with  a  golden  spade, 
but  after  some  time  abandoned  the  work  because  the  sci- 
entists of  that  day  told  him  that  the  sea  was  higher  on  one 
side  than  on  the  other.  May  2,  1882,  the  king  of  Greece 
started  in  a  silver  spade,  while  the  queen  did  more  efficient 
work  in  touching  off  a  train  of  dynamite  mines.  A  firm 
contracted  the  job  of  completing  what  the  king  and  queen 
had  begun  so  magnificently  for  five  million  two  hundred 


CANALS,  OLD  AND  NEW.  47 

and  eighty  thousand  dollars,  but  found  more  rock  than 
they  anticipated,  and  failed.  It  was  finally  completed  at 
a  cost  of  about  twelve  million  dollars.  A  Unit  three  thou- 
sand men  were  employed  at  the  {icriod  of  greatest  activity, 
together  with  seven  hundred  cars  and  eight  dredge's.  The 
deepest  cut  is  two  hundred  and  twenty-eight  feet.  There 
are  no  locks. 

A  remarkable  canal  that  is  but  little  known  is  the  St. 
Marv's,  or  Sault  Ste.  Marie  Canal,  forming  the  outlet  of 
I^ake  Sujx'rior  to  Lake  Huron.  It  has  the  largest  lock  in 
the  world,  being  eight  hundred  feet  long,  one  hundred  feet 
wide,  and  having  a  lift  of  eighteen  feet.  Its  tonnage  is 
double  that  of  the  Sue/  Canal.  It  is  only  one  mile  long, 
was  built  in  1855,  and  has  l>een  twice  enlarged.  Its  great 
lock,  only  recently  completed,  is  manipulated  wholly  by 
hydraulic  j>ower  taken  from  the  fall  at  the  lock,  so  that  the 
only  expense  is  for  maintenance  and  attendance.  The 
charge  to  passing  vessels  is  about  one-half  cent  JKT  ton. 

The  city  of  Chicago  has  dug  or  is  digging  a  canal  to 
connect  the  Chicago  River  with  a  tributary  of  the  Missis- 
sippi, desiring,  for  sewerage  purposes,  to  divert  the  Chicago 
River  from  Lake  Michigan.  The  work  is  to  be  extended 
ultimately  to  the  Mississippi,  at  a  depth  of  fourteen  feet. 
It  will  probably  cost  some  sixty  million  dollars  before 
completion. 

The  Manchester  Ship-Canal,  completed  in  1894,  is 
thirty-five  miles  long,  and  cost  seventy-five  million  dollars. 
Manchester  is  sixty-five  feet  above  the  sea-level,  and  five 
locks  were  necessary  to  elevate  the  incoming  ships.  Should 
this  prove  profitable,  there  is  no  telling  how  many  inland 
cities  will  become  seajx)rts.  This  canal  is  chiefly  remark- 
able for  its  great  width,  being  one  hundred  and  twenty 
feet  wide  at  the  bottom.  Its  construction  presented  some 


48  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

unusual  difficulties.  The  Mersey  River,  which  is  one  of 
the  most  crooked  on  the  globe,  lay  so  in  the  way  that  it  had 
to  be  crossed  six  times,  while  the  Bridgewater  Canal  had  to 
be  crossed  once.  This  latter  was  accomplished  in  a  novel 
manner.  Across  the  Manchester  Canal  is  constructed  what 
might  be  called  a  swinging  water-bridge.  Into  this  the 
Bridgewater  boats  are  hoisted  by  an  hydraulic  lift,  swung 
across  the  Manchester  Canal,  and  let  down  on  the  other 
side  by  another  lift.  The  swinging  water-bridge  is  then 
turned  to  one  side,  and  traffic  continues  on  the  Manchester 
Canal  until  another  Bridgewater  craft  demands  passage. 

The  Baltic  and  North  Sea  Canal  is  an  important  engi- 
neering work,  begun  in  1887  and  opened  in  1895.  It 
cost  forty  million  dollars,  and  will  save  vessels  the  dan- 
gerous trip  by  way  of  the  Cattegat  around  the  north  shore 
of  Denmark.  Nearly  three  thousand  vessels  have  been 
wrecked  in  passing  through  this  sound  within  thirty  years, 
with  a  loss  of  life  of  over  seven  hundred.  Prussia's  im- 
portance as  a  naval  power  will  be  augmented  by  the  canal, 
which  was  an  equally  potent  reason  with  that  government 
for  undertaking  the  work.  It  is  sixty -one  miles  long,  and 
twenty-nine  and  a  half  feet  deep,  sufficient  to  carry  the 
largest  vessels  in  the  German  navy.  It  is  expected  to 
aiford  accommodation  to  twenty  thousand  ships  annually. 
The  working  plant  consisted  of  ninety  locomotives,  two 
thousand  four  hundred  and  seventy-three  cars,  sixty-eight 
dredges,  one  hundred  and  thirty-three  lighters,  fifty-five 
steam-engines,  and  four  thousand  seven  hundred  to  eight 
thousand  six  hundred  men.  It  has  tide-locks  at  either 
end,  the  one  on  the  Baltic  end  being  usually  left  open. 
A  speed  of  five  and  three-tenths  miles  an  hour  will  be 
allowed  passing  vessels.  The  toll  will  be  seventy-five 
pfennigs  (eighteen  cents)  per  ton  capacity.  It  should  be 


CANALS,  OLD  AXD  NEW.  49 

stated,  in  this  connection,  that  there  are  already  three  canals 
connecting  the  Baltic  and  the  North  Sea,  all  of  them  old- 
time  affairs  of  little  depth,  and  two  of  them  having  l>een 
abandoned.  The  present  canal  is  an  almost  direct  cut, 
and  is  specially  designed  to  allow  of  quick  travel  for  the 
Prussian  gunboats.  It  will  lx*  a  saving  to  commercial 
vessels  of  three  or  four  hundred  miles. 

Projected  canals  are  of  quite  as  much  interest  as  those 
which  have  existed  in  the  past  or  are  being  built  in  the 
present.  One  of  the  most  remarkable  is  a  long-mooted 
enterprise  for  connecting  the  North  Sea  with  the  Mediter- 
ranean by  cutting  across  France.  There  are  two  routes 
now  under  consideration, — one  via  Marseilles,  Lyons,  and 
Dunkirk,  and  the  other  by  Marseilles,  Lyons,  Paris,  and 
Rouen.  That  portion  of  the  canal  from  Rouen  to  Paris,  a 
distance  of  over  a  hundred  miles,  is  most  seriously  con- 
sidered. 

There  is  agitation  in  several  English  commercial  cities 
for  a  closer  intimacy  with  old  Neptune.  A  ship-canal  to 
London,  at  a  cost  of  five  million  dollars,  is  mooted.  The 
towns  along  the  Trent  want  a  barge-canal,  while  those  on 
the  Mersey  talk  of  a  ship-canal,  eleven  feet  deep,  to  cost 
eleven  million  dollars.  Birmingham  is  very  likely  to  put 
through  a  ship-canal  to  the  Severn,  at  a  cost  of  six  or  seven 
million  dollars.  An  extension  of  this  scheme  is  desired 
by  merchants  of  the  manufacturing  centres  tributary  to  the 
Bristol  Channel,  the  projected  route  being  from  Stalford, 
on  the  Bristol  Channel,  via  Taunton  to  Seaton,  a  distance 
of  sixty-two  miles.  This  would  cost  about  fifteen  million 
dollars  more.  Other  proposed  British  canals  are  from  the 
Tyne  to  the  Sol  way  Frith  and  from  the  Clyde  to  the  Forth. 

A  canal  route  has  been  surveyed  across  Italy,  from 
Fano  on  the  Adriatic  to  near  Castro  on  the  Mediterra- 
c  d  6 


50  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

nean.  It  would  be  one  hundred  and  eighty  miles  longy 
and  an  undoubted  gain  to  navigation,  but  the  estimated 
cost  of  one  hundred  million  dollars  stands  in  the  way. 

Austria  desires  a  canal,  deep  enough  for  war-vessels, 
cutting  from  the  Danube,  near  Vienna,  to  the  Oder,  near 
Breslau,  thus  connecting  the  Baltic  and  Black  Seas.  The 
distance  is  two  hundred  miles,  but  the  route  is  easy,  so  that 
the  cost  is  set  down  as  not  over  thirty-seven  million  dollars. 
Other  proposed  enterprises  in  that  part  of  the  world  are 
a  canal  to  connect  the  Black  and  Caspian  Seas,  and  another 
to  cut  the  Isthmus  of  Perekop,  which  unites  the  Crimea 
with  the  mainland. 

It  has  been  proposed  to  fulfil  the  prophesy  in  Ezekiel,. 
and  obliterate  the  historic  Jordan,  Dead  Sea,  and  Sea  of 
Tiberias,  by  running  a  canal  from  Acre  on  the  Mediterra- 
nean to  the  valley  of  the  Jordan  and  on  to  the  Dead  Sea, 
which  would  then  be  flooded,  as  it  is  thirteen  hundred  feet 
below  the  sea-level.  This  section,  sacred  to  so  many  Chris- 
tians, would  be  turned  into  a  lake  of  one  hundred  and  forty- 
seven  by  ten  miles,  connected  on  the  north  with  the  Medi- 
terranean by  a  sixty-seven-mile  canal  and  on  the  south 
with  the  Gulf  of  Akabah  by  a  two-hundred-and-forty-mile 
canal.  It  is  claimed  that  this  would  make  a  route  to 
India  four  hours  shorter  than  the  Suez  Canal,  and  that  it 
would  cost  less  than  one  hundred  million  dollars  to  build 
it.  The  scheme  is  generally  regarded  as  a  lever  for  Eng- 
lish merchants  to  use  in  keeping  down  tolls  on  the  Suez 
Canal.  Another  canal  for  the  same  purpose,  connecting 
with  the  Persian  Gulf,  has  been  suggested. 

On  the  Western  Hemisphere  we  have  the  continually 
mooted  question  of  a  canal  dividing  North  and  South 
America,  with  De  Lesseps's  gigantic  failure  at  Panama  to 
check  the  enthusiasm  of  investors.  Let  us  hope  that  the 


CANALS,  OLD  AND   NEW.  51 


Xicaragiian  plan,  with  its  one  hundred  and  seventv 

of  route  and  estimated  cost  of  seventy-five  million  dollars, 

will  be  put  through. 

In  the  United  States  there  has  l>een  projx)sed  a  ship- 
canal  to  connect  the  Chesaj>eake  and  Delaware  Bays,  by  a 
thirty-mile  route,  at  a  cost  of  ten  million  dollars.  This 
would  bring  Baltimore  two  hundred  and  eighty-six  miles 
nearer  Philadelphia  by  water,  and  save  coasters  two  hun- 
dred and  fifteen  miles  between  Baltimore  and  New  York. 
A  canal  around  Niagara  Falls  on  the  American  side  is  fre- 
quently discussed,  since  the  Wei  land  Canal,  which  forms 
the  connection  on  the  Canadian  side,  is  only  fourteen  feet 
dee}).  The  new  canal  would  have  to  be  twenty  or  twenty- 
five  miles  long,  and  would  cost  eighteen  to  twenty  million 
dollars.  Of  course  there  have  been  plenty  of  j>eople  who 
desired  to  cut  the  Florida  peninsula.  A  company  was 
once  organized  for  the  purjwse,  but  failed  to  raise  the  re- 
quired forty-six  million  dollars. 

Another  project  is  the  enlargement  of  the  Delaware  and 
Raritan  Canal  for  the  use  of  vessels  of  deep  draught.  This 
would  complete  an  inland  route  via  the  Caj>e  Cod  Canal 
(now  under  way),  the  proposed  Delaware  and  Chesapeake 
Canal,  and  the  Dismal  Swamp  Canal,  forming  a  convenient 
protected  waterway  between  Boston,  New  York,  Philadel- 
phia, Baltimore,  Norfolk,  and  the  Carolina  Sounds.  Such 
a  route  might  become  of  vast  military  importance  in  case 
of  a  war  with  some  foreign  naval  power,  which  blocked 
our  ports.  Admiral  Luce  made  this  project  the  substance 
of  a  government  report,  showing  how  it  might  enable  us 
to  gather  our  navy  at  any  point  on  the  Atlantic  coast,  pos- 
sibly without  the  knowledge  of  a  hostile  fleet,  and  probably 
without  their  intervention. 

Among  other  proposed  canal  enterprises  in  this  country 


52  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

are  the  following  :  From  Lake  Borgne  to  the  Mississippi ; 
length,  twelve  miles  ;  cost,  four  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
dollars ;  would  save  two  hundred  and  sixty-five  miles  of 
gulf  navigation.  Cincinnati  and  Lake  Erie  ;  enlargement 
of  present  canals ;  cost,  twenty-eight  million  dollars. 
Fresno  and  San  Joaquin  Rivers ;  cost,  three  million 
dollars.  Saugatuck  to  Detroit  via  Kalamazoo  River ; 
length,  one  hundred  and  seventy-eight  miles ;  designed  to 
complete  an  air-line  water  route  between  New  York  and 
Chicago.  Bay  Autrain  on  Lake  Superior  to  Little  Bay  de 
Noquet  on  Lake  Michigan  ;  length,  thirty-six  miles  ;  cost, 
five  million  dollars  ;  would  save  two  hundred  and  seventy- 
one  miles  between  Duluth  and  Chicago.  Lake  Erie  to 
the  Ohio  River  ;  length,  one  hundred  and  thirty -six  miles ; 
designed  to  connect  the  Great  Lakes  with  the  Gulf  of 
Mexico.  A  ship-canal,  through  the  Great  Lakes,  wholly 
in  American  territory.  The  Dominion  of  Canada  has  a 
similar  one  all  on  British  territory,  built  at  a  cost  of 
sixty-seven  million  dollars. 

From  this  it  will  be  gathered  that  canal-building  is  not 
on  the  decline,  but  that  interior  waterways  are  sufficiently 
esteemed  by  civilized  nations  that  they  will  be  built 
wherever  demand  arises,  if  the  contour  of  the  ground 
permits.  Their  advantage  as  a  means  of  cheap  freight 
transportation,  and  for  quickly  gathering  the  vessels  of  a 
navy,  cannot  readily  be  overestimated. 

It  is  very  possible  that  barge-canals  may  receive  a  sub- 
stantial boom  because  of  electrical  propulsion,  which  has 
been  tried  successfully  of  late.  If  trolley  railways  can 
carry  passengers  cheaper  than  steam- railroads,  why  cannot 
trolley  canals  carry  freight  cheaper  than  the  steam-rail- 
roads ?  This  is  the  question  which  those  who  are  studying 
the  matter  are  trying  to  solve.  During  the  latter  part  of 


CANALS,  OLD  AND  NEW.  53 

1893,  F.  W.  Hawley,  of  Pittsfbrd,  New  York,  began 
experimenting  with  street-railway  motors  mounted  on  a 
canal-boat  and  oj>erating  a  propeller-screw  placed  at  the 
rear,  the  j>ower  being  derived  from  double  overhead  trolley 
wires.  A  fairly  satisfactory  result  was  obtained,  and  a  plan 

Fio.  s. 


THE  TROLLEY  TUG  ON  TUB  CANAL  DE  BOfRGOGNE. 

was  then  devised  for  allowing  such  boats  to  pass  each  other 
on  the  canal.  This  is  accomplished  by  supporting  the 
trolley-wires  on  cross-wires  so  that  the  trolley  wires  are 
free  to  slide  sideways  on  the  insulating  connections.  As  it 
would  be  expensive  to  fit  up  all  eanal-tx>ats  with  motors,  it 
has  been  proposed  to  use  propeller  tugs,  or  to  make  a  de- 
tachable stern-post,  bearing  the  rudder  and  motor.  The 
principal  objection,  however,  to  the  whole  project  is  that 
urged  against  all  methods  of  power  as  applied  to  canal- 
boats — the  banks  would  suffer  from  wash,  and  it  would 
cost  more  to  keep  them  in  repair  than  would  be  saved  by 
improved  methods  of  propulsion.  If  we  are  to  have  trol- 
leys and  screw-propelled  boats  on  canals  we  shall  have  to 
rebuild  them  with  permanent  masonry  banks  that  are  not 
affected  by  wash.  We  might  then  run  the  canal-boats  at 
twenty  miles  an  hour,  if  that  proved  to  be  an  economical 

6* 


54  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

speed.  If  rebuilding  is  considered  an  unremunerative  in- 
vestment, we  can  at  least  adopt  the  German  method  of  draw- 
ing the  canal-boats  by  means  of  a  tug  that  picks  up  a  chain 
from  the  bottom  and  runs  it  over  a  reel,  drawing  itself  along. 
The  Germans  use  steam-power  on  the  tug,  but  if  we  made 
use  of  a  motor,  driven  by  the  overhead  trolley,  it  would 
appear  to  be  a  saving,  and  there  would  be  no  wash  of  the 
banks,  as  where  a  propeller  is  used.  This  has  actually 
been  done  on  the  Canal  de  Bourgogne  in  France.  A  por- 
tion of  the  canal,  about  three  miles  and  three-quarters 
long,  is  in  a  deep  cutting  and  tunnel,  where  a  tow-path  was 
impracticable.  A  submerged  chain  and  steam-tug  were 
therefore  provided  for  propelling  the  barges  through  the 
cutting.  As  there  was  ample  water-power  in  the  vicinity, 
it  was  decided  later  to  abandon  the  tug,  and  in  1893  a 
power-house  was  built,  with  a  trolley-wire  over  the  canal. 
An  electric  tug  takes  the  current  by  means  of  a  trolley- 
pole,  and  the  work  of  towing  the  barges  is  all  done  by  a 
neighboring  waterfall  of  twenty-three  feet.  The  sub- 
merged chain  is  picked  up  and  passed  around  a  drum  on 
the  tug,  and  by  hauling  on  this  the  tug  makes  slow  head- 
way with  its  tow.  The  tug  motor  is  nineteen  horse-power. 
The  cost  of  canalage  through  the  tunnel  by  this  method 
has  been  reduced  from  a  slight  fraction  over  two  cents  a 
ton  by  steam-power  to  one  and  four-tenths  cents  per  ton 
by  trolley,  and  the  time  of  passage  is  slightly  shortened. 
The  cost  of  installing  the  electric  plant  was  twenty-seven 
thousa'nd  dollars. 

It  is  only  a  question  of  time  when  some  such  improved 
methods  of  propulsion  come  into  use  on  all  canals,  or  else 
the  canal-barge  must  become  a  thing  of  the  past.  It  is 
already  behind  this  progressive  age,  and  requires  to  catch 
up  to  avoid  being  dropped. 


ELECTRICITY  AND  ITS  FUTURE.  55 


ELECTRICITY   AND    ITS    FUTURE. 

The  Nature  of  the  Electric  Fluid,  and  the  Wondrous  Possibilities 
that  lie  before  Electrical  Inventors. 

ELECTRICITY  is  the  modern  agency  by  which  we  may 
produce  action  at  a  distance.  It  has  Ijeen  compared  to  an 
infinitely  flexible  connecting-rod,  by  means 
of  which  we  can  transmit  energy  and  re- 
produce it  in  any  desired  form  at  a  dis- 
tance. By  its  aid  we  can  turn  the  sunshine 
of  thousands  of  years  gone  by,  whose  en- 
ergy is  stored  up  in  coal — we  can  convert 
this  sunshine  back  into  light,  or  heat,  or, 
better  still,  we  can  reconvert  it  into  energy  and  make  it  do 
our  work. 

There  is  a  good  deal  of  unnecessary  mystery  about  this 
wonderful  force  which  man  has  so  lately  harnessed  and 
brought  under  control.  Either  scientists  and  electricians 
are  too  prone  to  keep  their  knowledge  of  what  it  is  to 
themselves,  or  else  there  exists  among  them  a  great  lack 
of  ability  to  express  in  plain  understandable  English  just 
what  electricity  is.  Some  of  them  go  so  far  as  to  say  that 
we  do  not  know  what  electricity  is,  that  we  can  judge  of 
it  only  by  its  effects,  and  that  we  have  learned,  partly  by 
accident  and  partly  by  experiment,  that  it  is  governed  by 
certain  natural  laws,  and  that  under  given  conditions  it 
will  do  certain  things.  While  all  these  statements  are 
true,  they  are  only  half-truths.  That  is  the  way  to  tell 
a  thing  when  you  wish  to  overshadow  a  man  with  your 
learning  and  keep  him  from  getting  at  the  truth.  Is  it 
not  true  of  all  the  forces  of  Nature  that  we  judge  of  them 
by  their  effects  ?  There  is  a  philosophic  theory  that  man 


56  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

cannot  really  know  anything,  but  simply  receives  impres- 
sions of  what  exists  about  him.  That  is  one  way  of  put- 
ting it,  but  some  impressions  are  much  more  vivid  than 
others.  A  blow  on  the  head  with  a  club  is  the  police- 
man's method  of  conveying  the  impression  to  a  ruffian 
that  he  must  behave  himself  and  cease  to  make  trouble. 
That  sort  of  impression  is  easily  conveyed.  But  the  im- 
pression as  to  what  electricity  really  is  has  not  entered 
clearly  into  the  mind  of  one  educated  person  in  a  dozen. 
Even  this  sweeping  assertion  probably  understates  the 
fact.  Let  us  take  a  definition  from  one  of  the  authorities. 
This  will  serve  as  a  fair  average  statement  of  the  case : 
Electricity  is  "an  imponderable  and  invisible  agent  pro- 
ducing various  manifestations  of  energy,  and  generally 
rendered  active  by  some  molecular  disturbances,  such  as 
friction,  rupture,  or  chemical  action.  At  rest  it  is  called 
static,  is  produced  usually  by  friction,  manifests  itself 
chiefly  in  attractions  and  repulsions  and  violent  discharges 
like  that  of  lightning,  and  has  no  use  in  the  arts.  In 
motion  it  is  called  dynamic  or  current  electricity,  and  this 
form  has  been  widely  developed." 

This  is  as  scholarly  and  concise  a  statement  as  can  be 
found  in  any  text-book.  But  the  man  who  is  trying  to 
learn  what  electricity  is  turns  from  it  with  a  sigh — it  has 
not  conveyed  the  idea  to  his  mind. 

Let  us  try  and  see  if  we  cannot  make  this  thing  clear. 
The  primary  reason  why  we  do  not  comprehend  electricity 
readily  is  because  it  does  not  easily  or  directly  manifest 
itself  to  our  senses.  True,  we  see  it  in  the  electric  arc, 
we  feel  it  in  the  battery,  and  we  hear  it  in  the  thunder's 
roar ;  but  we  know  that  the  electric  fluid  is  all  about  us, 
in  us,  and  through  us  when  we  experience  no  sensations  of 
its  presence.  We  therefore  fail  to  comprehend  it,  just  as 


ELECTRICITY  AXD  ITS  FUTURE.  57 

a  man  born  blind  fails  to  comprehend  light,  or  a  deaf  mute 
to  understand  music.  Yet  by  a  simple  analogy  with  such 
well-known  manifestations  as  sound,  light,  and  heat,  we 
get  a  better  appreciation  of  what  electricity  is  than  in  any 
other  way.  These  things  are  familiar  to  us.  The  child 
knows  to  a  great  extent  what  light  is  before  it  learns  to 
spell  the  word.  Heat  is  essential  to  our  existence,  and  we 
observe  very  slight  changes  in  temj>erature  most  keenly. 
When  we  consider  that  the  difference  in  temperature  be- 
tween our  bodies  and  the  heat  of  melting  iron  is  alxmt  two 
thousand  eight  hundred  and  fifty  degrees,  and  that  these 
extremes  are  common  and  moderate  in  nature,  the  fact  that 
an  alteration  of  only  fifty  degrees  sends  us  from  lemon 
ices  to  fur  overcoats  serves  to  show  how  extremely  sensi- 
tive we  are  to  heat.  As  for  sound,  we  do  not  need  to  have 
that  defined  for  us.  We  had  an  inherent  understanding 
of  what  it  was  long  before  we  were  taught  that  it  was  due 
to  vibrations,  as  of  the  air. 

Having,  then,  an  appreciation  of  what  light,  heat,  and 
sound  are,  we  desire  to  be  able  to  appreciate  electricity  in 
the  same  way.  Just  here  the  scientific  knowledge  of  light, 
heat,  and  sound  will  help  us  to  comprehend  electricity  in 
a  commonplace  way.  Space  is  filled  with  a  medium,  vastly 
lighter  than  air,  called  the  luminiferous  ether.  It  exists 
not  only  in  space,  but  permeates  all  solid  and  liquid  bodies 
— in  fact,  everything.  This  ether  is  subject  to  vibrations 
of  inconceivable  rapidity.  It  is  these  vibrations  that  con- 
vey to  our  eyes  the  light  of  stars  across  measureless  space. 
A  difference  in  the  rapidity  of  these  light  vibrations  con- 
veys to  our  eyes  the  sense  of  color.  At  one  speed  of 
vibration  we  see  red,  at  another  yellow,  and  at  a  third  blue, 
and  so  on  through  the  intermediate  combinations  and 
shades.  The  light  vibrations  in  the  ether  are  like  the 


1)8      WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

sound  vibrations  in  the  air — they  go  through  it  without 
moving  it,  as  a  ripple  passes  over  the  surface  of  a  lake 
without  disturbing  its  occupants.  The  air  is,  however, 
subject  to  violent  disturbances  in  the  form  of  winds,  and 
so  the  ether  is  subject  to  similar  disturbances  whose  mani- 
festations we  call  electricity.  Do  you  begin  to  under- 
stand ?  Sound  is  a  wave  motion  passing  through  the  air. 
Light  is  a  wave  motion  passing  through  the  ether.  Heat 
is  a  more  pronounced  molecular  disturbance  of  the  ether, 
that  may  affect  the  ether  within  our  bodies.  Electricity 
is  as  the  wind  of  ether — a  still  more  violent  disturbance 
of  the  molecules,  capable  of  exerting  tremendous  force, 
and  of  passing  through  solid  bodies.  It  is  tasteless  and 
odorless,  and  in  many  ways  inappreciable  to  the  senses, 
but  it  is  not  at  all  a  mystery.  Sound  travels  without  dis- 
turbing the  air,  and  light  travels  without  disturbing  the 
ether.  On  the  contrary,  wind  travels  by  disturbing  the 
air,  and  electricity  by  a  disturbance  of  the  ether.  By 
keeping  this  analogy  in  mind,  that  electricity  is  the  onflow 
of  ether,  as  wind  is  the  onflow  of  air,  we  gain  a  realistic 
conception  of  this  thing  that  we  cannot  see  or  appreciate 
in  the  way  that  we  appreciate  sound  or  light.  There  are 
blind  insects  that  live,  and  breed,  and  die  in  caves,  and 
have  no  knowledge  or  use  for  light.  We  have,  as  a  race, 
been  blind  to  electricity  for  ages.  Perhaps  our  day  is 
coming,  and  human  beings  may  yet  develop  a  new  sense, 
enabling  them  to  know  what  electricity  is,  just  as  the  in- 
sects that  do  not  live  in  caves  have  a  sense  of  light. 

The  next  point  to  be  cleared  up  is  as  to  the  means  by 
which  we  use  this  wind  of  ether,  electricity.  We  know 
that  if  we  confine  air  in  a  pipe  and  put  a  bellows  or 
blower  in  operation  at  one  end,  the  wind  created  will  give 
us  power  at  the  other  end  of  the  pipe,  which  power  we  can 


ELECTRICITY  AND  ITS  FUTURE  59 

use  for  driving  a  fan,  or  operating  machinery,  as  by  means 
of  a  cylinder  and  piston.  For  electricity,  we  require  not  a 
pipe  with  a  hole  through  it,  but  a  line  composed  of  a  sub- 
stance through  which  electricity  travels  easily,  and  shielded 
from  going  astray  by  a  substance  through  which  it  does 
not  travel  or  flow  readily.  In  a  copjxT  wire  we  Hud  the 
former,  which  we  call  a  conductor.  Along  this  wire  elec- 
tricity will  flow  as  the  air  flows  through  a  pipe,  only  very 
much  more  rapidly.  The  insulation  or  non-conducting 
covering  of  this  wire  serves  to  keep  the  electricity  in  the 
desired  line  as  the  walls  of  the  pij>e  confine  the  wind. 
Thus  we  convey  electricity. 

If  we  wish  to  get  light  from  this  current  on  the  wire 
we  have  but  to  use  a  very  fine  jx)rtion  of  heat-resisting 
wire,  such  as  platinum,  and  confine  it  in  a  vacuum  in  a 
glass  bulb,  so  that  it  will  not  burn  up  quickly,  and  when 
the  current  flows  through  our  wire  in  the  bulb  we  have  an 
incandescent  electric  light.  Or,  if  we  want  an  arc  light, 
we  use  a  much  more  powerful  current  and  make  a  slight 
break  in  the  line  of  wire,  using  pieces  of  carbon  at  the 
point  of  breakage,  as  ordinary  wire  would  not  stand  the 
heat.  The  electricity,  in  seeking  to  continue  its  flow  along 
the  wire,  leaps  across  the  little  break  or  gap,  and  in  so 
doing  makes  a  manifestation  of  light,  as  the  lightning 
does  when  electricity  leaps  from  one  cloud  to  another,  or 
to  the  earth. 

How  do  we  get  the  current  or  etheric  wind  that  flows 
along  our  wire?  It  is  by  utilizing  the  law  that  electricity 
makes  a  temporary  magnet  of  iron  when  it  flows  around 
it.  Thus,  if  we  wind  a  bar  of  iron  with  a  coiled  wire,  and 
pass  a  current  through  that  wire,  it  may  exert  a  magnetic 
force  and  draw  towards  it  an  armature.  If  the  current  Ix? 
then  shut  off  the  armature  may  continue  on  in  a  circuit, 


60  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

and  as  it  comes  around  to  the  original  point  of  starting 
the  iron  bar  is  again  magnetized  by  turning  on  the  current, 
and  draws  the  armature  along,  producing  rotary  motion. 
This  is  the  principle  of  an  electric  motor.  And  we  get 
the  electricity  for  operating  our  electric  motor  by  using  a 
similar  machine  in  a  reverse  manner,  which  machine  is 
then  called  a  dynamo  or  generator.  In  this  dynamo  we 
move  an  iron  bar  to  and  fro,  or  more  commonly  in  a  cir- 
cular path,  towards  and  away  from  a  bar  of  iron  about 
which  a  wire  is  coiled,  and  the  coil  becomes  stored  with 
electricity,  and  is  a  temporary  magnet.  We  may  use  a 
steam-engine  to  move  our  armature  and  set  up  this  current, 
which  may  be  led  from  the  generator  to  an  electric  motor 
to  do  work,  as  in  running  the  machinery  of  a  factory ;  or 
we  may  send  it  out  on  a  trolley-wire  to  be  conveyed  to  the 
motors  of  a  street-car,  and  carry  it  along  ;  or  we  may  elec- 
trify a  wire  so  that  it  shall  reproduce  the  vibrations  of 
sound  on  sensitive  disks,  giving  us  the  telephone ;  or  send 
it  along  another  wire  to  a  little  bit  of  a  motor,  that  can  do 
no  better  work  than  to  make  little  clicks  with  its  arma- 
ture, which,  properly  used,  according  to  the  Morse  code, 
conveys  a  telegraphic  despatch. 

It  is  all  very  simple,  and  easy  to  understand,  when  once 
you  have  the  principles  ingrafted  in  your  mind. 

Now  that  we  have  gained  some  appreciation  of  what 
electricity  is,  and  how  it  performs  the  tasks  which  we  have 
learned  to  set  it,  let  us  try  to  go  a  step  farther,  and  see  if 
we  can  discern  any  future  uses  for  this  most  subtle  of 
fluids,  which  we  are  just  beginning  to  learn  to  use,  to  en- 
able us  to  annihilate  space,  and  do  our  will,  across  the 
trackless  waters,  or  threading  through  the  mazes  of  a  hive 
of  industry. 

We  have  access  to  a  fourth  state  of  matter,  of  which  the 


ELECTRICITY  AND  ITS  FUTURE.  61 

others  may  be  given  as  the  gaseous  state,  the  liquid  state, 
and  the  solid  state.  This  fourth  state  is  made  up  of  ether, 
which  moves  with  the  velocity  of  light, and  it  we  are  ever 
to  communicate  with  other  worlds  it  will  be  by  this 
medium.  As  we  can  never  run  a  wire  to  another  sphere, 
we  must,  then,  learn  to  send  our  currents  by  other  means. 
It  is  just  this  thing  which  eminent  electricians  tell  us  is 
possible.  Nikola  Tesla  has  demonstrated  that  it  is  not 
necessary  to  have  a  return  wire  to  connect  a  motor  and  its 
generator,  or  even  to  use  a  wire  at  all.  He  says,  "  It  is  not 
necessary  to  have  even  a  single  connection  between  the 
motor  and  the  generator,  except,  |>erhaps,  through  the 
ground ;  for  not  only  is  an  insulated  plate  caj>able  of 
giving  off  energy  into  space,  but  it  is  likewise  capable  of 
deriving  it  from  an  alternating  electrostatic  field,  though 
in  the  latter  case  the  available  energy  is  much  smaller." 

When  we  have  learned  to  make  practical  use  of  this 
principle  we  shall  have  no  need  to  transmit  power  in  any 
other  way.  He  says,  further,  "  We  shall  have  no  need  to 
transmit  power  at  all.  Ere  many  generations  pass,  our 
machinery  will  be  driven  by  a  power  obtainable  at  any  point 
of  the  universe.  .  .  .  Throughout  space  there  is  energy. 
Is  this  energy  static  or  kinetic  ?  If  static,  our  hopes  are 
in  vain  ;  if  kinetic — and  this  we  know  it  is  for  certain — 
then  it  is  a  mere  question  of  time  when  men  will  succeed 
in  attaching  their  machinery  to  the  very  wheel- work  of 
Nature." 

Already  we  know  of  one  practical  means  of  conveying 
useful  intelligence  by  electricity  without  a  connecting  wire, 
and  it  is  reasonably  sure  to  come  into  use  before  long. 
Suppose  the  problem  is  to  convey  information  between 
two  passing  ships,  on  a  dark  and  stormy  night,  from  a 
distance  at  which  neither  can  see  or  hear  the  other  by  or- 

6 


62  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

dinary  means.  The  roaring  winds  drown  the  powerful 
fog-horns,  and  the  dense  mist  shuts  out  the  strong  arc 
lights.  Suppose,  now,  that  each  of  these  vessels  has  an 
insulated  wire  running  from  stem  to  stern,  and  dipping 
into  the  sea  at  either  end.  Connected  with  each  wire  is  a 
generator  capable  of  producing  strong,  rapidly  alternating 
currents  of  electricity.  Also  on  each  wire  is  a  receiving 
telephone.  The  sounds  from  one  vessel  will  then  create 
electric  undulations  through  the  ether  that  pervades  the 
water,  and  be  conveyed  for  miles,  despite  the  racket  and 
the  raging  of  the  elements,  to  the  ear  of  a  listener  at  the 
telephone  of  the  other  vessel.  By  such  means  can  our 
ocean  greyhounds  continue  at  full  speed  in  the  storm  and 
darkness  with  the  same  safety  that  they  fly  onward  in  the 
warm  sunshine  of  a  June  day. 

FIG.  10. 

magnet 


Battery 

MORSE'S  METHOD  OF  TELEGRAPHING  ACROSS  A  RIVER  WITHOUT  WIRES. 

a,  a,  a,  a,  copper  plates. 

The  proof  that  this  is  practicable,  and  not  mere  theory, 
has  been  shown  many  times.  It  was  done  by  Morse 
across  a  small  river,  and  since  his  time  at  greater  dis- 
tances. An  experiment  was  tried  in  the  Bristol  Channel 
a  couple  of  years  since,  at  Lavernock  Point,  which  is 
more  than  three  miles  from  Flatholm  Island  and  five  and 
a  half  from  Steepholm  Island.  Wires  six  hundred  yards 
long  were  laid  at  each  place,  the  ends  extending  into  the 
water  below  low-water  mark.  A  steam-launch  in  the 


ELECTRICITY  AND   ITS  FUTURE.  63 

Channel  was  also  supplied  with  such  a  wire.  A  two- 
horse  engine  was  made  to  work  an  alternator,  sending  one 
hundred  and  ninety-two  complete  alternations  JKT  second 
with  a  voltage  of  150,  and  a  maximum  strength  of  fifteen 
amperes.  These  alternating  currents  were  broken  into 
Morse  signals  by  a  telegraphic  key.  Ordinary  telephone 
receivers  were  used  on  the  secondary  circuits.  The  ex- 
periment was  found  wholly  successful  between  Flatlmlm 
and  the  shore,  and  a  numlxT  of  messages  were  enchanged. 
On  the  more  distant  island  the  sounds  telegraphed  were 
heard  too  indistinctly  to  be  interpretable.  It  was  found 
necessary  to  keep  the  line  that  entered  the  water  near  the 
surface,  as  with  deep  submergence  the  sound  was  alto- 
gether lost.  This  method,  if  brought  into  general  use, 
would  be  very  serviceable  in  warning  ships  of  the  presence 
of  lighthouses. 

The  telectroscope,  a  hypothetical  instrument  invented  by 
Leon  le  Pontois,  is  even  more  wonderful.  By  its  aid  lie 
expects  to  make  visible  that  which  is  at  the  other  end  of 
the  wire,  just  as  we  now  hear  what  goes  on  at  the  other 
end  of  the  telephone.  Though  the  instrument  is  only  in  a 
proposed  stage  as  yet,  it  is  clearly  conceived  on  scientific 
principles,  and  is  a  reasonable  possibility  of  the  near  future. 
He  proposes  to  use  a  rotating  disk,  having  say  twenty 
holes  in  its  periphery.  As  this  disk  rotates,  it  will  convey 
to  the  observer  a  continuous  picture  of  the  light  thrown 
towards  these  holes  from  a  receiving  instrument  con- 
structed to  vibrate  in  accord  with  the  light  vibrations  car- 
ried over  an  electric  wire  from  a  corresponding  instrument 
that  receives  the  image  at  the  far  end  of  the  wire.  The 
entire  description  of  the  apparatus  is  too  technical  for 
popular  reading,  but  the  following  from  the  pen  of  the 
inventor  throws  further  light  upon  the  operation : 


64  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

"  With  the  apparatus,  it  can  be  easily  understood  that, 
if  the  disk  is  caused  to  revolve,  each  of  the  rays  of  light 
forming  the  picture  will  successively  set  in  the  line  cur- 
rents of  varying  strength.  These  currents  act  at  the  re- 
ceiving apparatus  upon  a  microphonic  relay  acting  on  the 
telephone  receiver,  modified  by  the  addition  of  a  narrow 
chamber  placed  between  the  disk  and  a  cover  hermetically 
closing  the  telephone. 

"  One  of  the  chambers  is  full  of  oxygen,  brought  in  by 
a  pipe,  and  the  other  is  full  of  hydrogen.  On  the  top 
of  the  covers  is  tubing  properly  adjusted  and  provided 
with  regulating  valves.  The  two  gases  are  brought  under 
pressure  near  the  surface  of  a  cylinder  of  carbonate  of 
calcium. 

"  The  variations  in  the  strength  of  the  current  of  the 
microphonic  relay  cause  pulsation  of  the  diaphragms. 
But  those  pulsations,  even  if  they  are  of  a  molecular 
nature,  impart  to  the  molecules  of  the  gas  an  excess  of 
speed,  causing  proportional  variations  in  the  intensity  of 
the  oxyhydrogen  light.  A  lens  and  a  reflector  concen- 
trate the  light  on  a  ground  glass  or  screen  after  having 
previously  passed  by  one  of  the  perforations  of  a  disk 
absolutely  similar  to  the  disk  placed  in  the  transmitting 
apparatus. 

"  Then,  according  to  the  position  occupied  by  the  per- 
foration on  the  surface  of  the  disk,  the  beam  of  light  pass- 
ing by  this  point  makes  a  more  or  less  luminous  point  at 
some  place  on  the  depolished  glass. 

"  But  as  the  two  disks  are  revolved  synchronously  by 
the  two  pulsating  current  motors,  whose  pulsations  are  con- 
trolled and  even  created  by  the  vibrations  of  a  tuning-fork, 
when  the  light  of  the  receiver  passes  through  a  certain 
perforation  of  the  receiving  disk  one  of  the  rays  of  light 


ELECTRICITY  AND  ITS  FUTURE.  65 

emitted  by  the  object  passes  by  the  same  perforation  of  the 
transmitting  disk.  If  the  disk  turn  slowly,  eacli  ray  of 
light  emitted  by  the  different  points  of  the  object  placed  in 
the  Held  of  the  transmitting  apparatus  is  converted  into  an 
electric  current  of  proportional  intensity,  which  current  is 
reconverted  at  the  receiving  apparatus  into  a  l>eam  of  light 
of  proportional  intensity,  and  if  a  sensitive  plate  were  sub- 
stituted for  the  ground  gla*s,  a  picture  would  be  taken  of 
the  object  placed  in  view  of  the  transmitter  after  a  com- 
plete revolution  of  the  disk.  But  if  the  disks  are  revolved 
at  a  rate  of  ten  revolutions  JKT  second,  each  jK>int  of  the 
depolished  glass  is  more  or  less  luminous  or  dark  ten  times 
a  second,  and  on  account  of  the  ]>ersistenee  of  vision  the 
retina  is  not  affected  by  the  successive  disappearance  of  the 
points,  which  taken  together  reproduce  exactly  the  object 
placed  in  view  of  the  transmitter. 

"It  does  not  matter  even  if  this  object  moves  or  not, 
because  the  image  of  the  receiver  is  constantly  modified  by 
its  movements." 

Let  us  hojKJ  that  this  talented  inventor  may  live  to  see 
his  instruments  perfected  and  in  daily  use. 

The  greatest  money  harvest,  however,  awaits  the  in- 
ventor who  discovers  a  satisfactory  method  of  converting 
coal  directly  into  electrical  energy.  At  present,  Tesla's 
oscillator  comes  nearer  this  goal  than  anything  developed, 
yet  all  electrical  engineers  are  convinced  that  there  will  be 
discovered  some  simple  and  less  wasteful  method  than  that 
of  burning  the  coal  under  a  boiler  to  make  steam,  passing 
the  steam  through  cylinders  to  make  use  of  its  pressure, 
and  from  the  power  thus  derived  driving  a  dynamo  to  send 
out  a  current  on  the  wires.  Some  day  a  genius  will  devise 
a  machine  in  which  the  burning  of  a  gas  flame  at  the  bot- 
tom will  enable  electricity  to  be  taken  from  the  top,  and  we 
e  6* 


66  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

shall  secure  twenty  times  the  power  from  a  pound  of  coal 
that  we  now  receive.  Then  we  can  build  steamships  that 
will  cross  the  Atlantic  in  three  days  or  circumnavigate  the 
globe  inside  of  one  month.  Then  we  shall  have  electric 
locomotives  that  will  make  the  run  over  perfect  railways 
between  our  large  cities  at  a  speed  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 
miles  an  hour — a  speed  limited  not  by  the  capacity  of  the 
locomotives,  but  by  the  ability  of  the  steel  mechanism  to 
avoid  dismemberment  by  centrifugal  force.  This  is  not 
visionary  talk,  but  the  serious  conclusions  of  men  who 
have  given  more  thought  to  these  subjects  than  their 
fellows. 

The  power  which  we  have  just  begun  to  draw  from 
Niagara,  and  upon  which  we  may  draw  from  every  water- 
fall, has  a  source  further  back  than  gravity.  The  sun's 
rays  give  out  a  heat  that  results  in  the  gathering  of  the 
waters  that  descend  the  falls.  The  same  luminary  supplies 
the  inhabitants  of  the  tropics  with  more  heat  than  they 
require.  May  we  not  some  day  draw  upon  this  heat  by 
electrical  wires,  and  soften  the  icebergs  of  the  frozen 
North?  As  Sidney  F.  Walker  has  aptly  put  it— 

"  If  what  we  know  as  electricity  be  a  form  of  molecular 
motion  at  a  lower  rate  than  the  slowest  of  the  invisible  heat 
waves,  the  day  on  which  it  becomes  possible  to  reduce  the 
rate  of  the  molecules,  when  vibrating  under  the  influence 
of  heat,  directly  until  their  motion  corresponds  with  the 
rate  we  know  as  electricity  without  the  at  present  necessary 
repeated  transformations,  an  enormous  stride  will  have  been 
made  towards  neutralizing  the  inequalities  of  climates  on 
our  globe. 

"  It  is  some  years  since  Professor  Oliver  Lodge  added  to 
Lord  Rayleigh's  work  the  discovery  that  floating  dust  par- 
ticles might  be  aggregated  in  the  same  manner  as  the  rain- 


ELECTRICITY  AND  ITS  FUTURE.  67 

drops  are  by  discharges  of  static  electricity.  Is  it  too  bold, 
wickedly  lx>ld,  to  hope  that  in  the  future,  by  means  of 
electricity,  we  may  be  able,  at  least  in  part,  to  control  our 
seasons?  Why  need  we  have  a  dry  summer,  as  in  1.SU3, 
when  the  moisture  is  present  in  the  atmosphere,  and  can  IK? 
made  to  descend?  Why  need  we  have  superlatively  wet 
seasons  if  the  atmosphere  is  not  allowed  to  retain  a  SUJKT- 
abundanoe  of  moisture,  when  it  may  be  caused  to  discharge 
its  cargo  when  desired  ?" 

There  is  good  reason  to  believe  that  before  many  years 
the  submarine  ocean  cables  will  IKJ  available  for  telephony, 
and  that  the  sounds  of  the  human  voice*  may  be  heard 
under  the  broad  Atlantic.  Ocean  telegraphy  is  undeniably 
slow,  about  twenty-five  words  a  minute  being  all  that  can 
be  obtained.  The  gutta-jHTeha  insulation  of  the  cable  re- 
tards the  rate  of  signalling,  and  various  ingenious  devices 
have  only  partially  improved  the  sjx'ed.  No  electrician 
will  be  found,  however,  who  doubts  that,  in  spite  of  this 
retardation,  which  now  makes  telephony  impossible  in  a 
submarine  cable,  a  time  Is  corning  when  the  telephone  will 
triumph  over  the  difficulty.  Already  Dr.  Silvanus  P. 
Thompson  has  announced  that  he  believes  that  he  has 
found  a  way  to  overcome  the  obstacle,  by  introducing  a 
series  of  shunts  in  the  cable,  and  dividing  the  cable-wires 
into  sections  of  about  eighty  miles.  His  scheme  is  very 
technical,  but  is  endorsed  by  other  eminent  electricians. 

It  is  well  known  that,  notwithstanding  the  moderate 
cost  of  the  arc  electric  light,  it  is  obtained  by  a  most 
wasteful  method.  Only  one  per  cent,  of  the  energy  in  the 
current  goes  to  make  the  light!  The  remaining  ninety- 
nine  per  cent,  is  lost.  The  waste  of  heat  begins  in  the 
furnace,  and  there  is  loss  by  friction,  leakage,  lack  of  bal- 
ance, etc.,  in  every  part  of  the  steam-engine.  The  best  of 


68  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

engines  develop  but  a  small  per  cent,  of  the  heat  energy 
from  the  coal.  There  is  great  waste  by  belt  friction  in 
connecting  with  the  dynamo,  and  the  dynamo  itself  wastes 
about  ten  per  cent.  Thirty  per  cent,  more  is  lost  on  the 
wires  of  the  system,  and  of  the  small  remainder  that  reaches 
the  arc  light,  ninety-nine  per  cent,  is  dissipated  in  passing 
the  carbons.  We  look  to  Tesla's  oscillator  to  save  the 
wastes  in  the  engine  and  belts,  but  for  the  saving  of  that 
ninety-nine  per  cent,  we  have  not  yet  found  a  means. 

We  have  noted  that  light  is  the  result  of  etheric  vibra- 
tions of  high  pitch,  and  it  should  be  added  that  they  are 
much  higher  than  the  heat  vibrations.  If,  then,  we  have 
to  make  light  by  beginning  with  nothing  and  continuing 
through  all  the  lower  vibrations  until  we  get  to  the  light 
vibrations,  we  are  wasting  a  great  deal  of  energy.  Yet 
that  is  just  what  we  are  doing.  If  we  must  needs  do  it. 
that  way  we  require  a  light-producer  that  shall  acquire  the 
higher  vibrations  in  a  marvellously  short  space  of  time. 
Light  is  the  product  of  etheric  vibrations  whose  rate  is 
estimated  to  be  about  five  hundred  trillions  a  second.  It 
is  a  difficult  task  some  inventors  have  set  themselves,  to 
"  cateh  on"  to  this  mighty  exhibition  of  energy,  but  Edison 
and  others  tell  us  that  it  can  be  done. 

Mr.  Tesla  believes  that  the  production  of  a  small  electrode 
or  terminal  button  is  necessary  to  the  production  of  a  satis- 
factory incandescent  light.  He  says  : 

"  The  intensity  of  the  light  emitted  depends  principally 
on  the  frequency  and  potential  of  the  impulses  and  on  the 
electric  density  on  the  surface  of  the  electrode.  It  is  of 
the  greatest  importance  to  employ  the  smallest  possible 
button,  in  order  to  push  the  density  very  far.  Under  the 
violent  impact  of  the  molecules  of  the  gas  surrounding  it, 
the  small  electrode  is,  of  course,  brought  to  an  extremely 


ELECTRICITY  ASD   ITS  FUTURE.  69 

high  temperature,  but  around  it  is  a  mass  of  highly-incan- 
descent gas,  a  flame  photosphere  many  hundred  times  the 
volume  of  the  electrode. 

"To  whatever  kind  of  motion  light  mav  lx>  due,  it  is 
produced  by  tremendous  electrostatic  stresses  vibrating 
with  extreme  rapidity.  .  .  .  Electrostatic  force  is  the 
force  which  governs  the  motion  of  the  atoms,  which  causes 
them  to  collide  and  develop  the  life-sustaining  energy  of 
heat  and  light,  and  which  causes  them  to  aggregate  in  an 
indefinite  variety  of  ways,  according  to  nature's  fanciful 
designs,  and  form  all  these  wondrous  structures  we  see 
around  us ;  it  is,  in  fact,  if  our  present  views  be  true,  the 
most  important  force  for  us  to  consider  in  nature." 

We  can  safely  leave  such  problems  in  the  hands  of  such 
geniuses  as  Edison,  Tesla,  Thompson,  and  Le  Pontois. 
Indeed,  let  us  be  thankful  that  it  does  not  fall  to  the  com- 
mon lot  to  be  obliged  to  solve  these  questions  for  ourselves. 
Such  work  requires  godlike  genius  and  an  entire  devotion 
to  one  line  of  research.  Some  day  the  world  will  realize 
all  the  advances  in  electrical  science  that  have  been  hinted 
at  here,  and  that  probably  before  the  close  of  the  twentieth 
century.  The  favored  ones  who  live  in  that  time  will  no 
doubt  dream  of  possibilities  that  are  unborn  to  living 
minds.  It  seems  not  unreasonable  to  presume  that  the 
Creator  designed  man  to  eventually  master  all  knowledge. 
Sic  itur  ad  astro,  ! 


70  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

THE    KINETO-PHONOGRAPH. 

Professor  Edison's  Invention  for  reproducing  continuously  Sights 
and  Accompanying  Sounds — Its  Wondrous  Possibilities. 

IN  1887,  Thomas  A.  Edison  set  himself  to  work  to  de- 
velop the  idea  found  in  the  zoetrope,  and  to  perfect  it  so  as  to 
reproduce  to  the  eye  the  effect  of  human  motion  by  means 
of  a  swift  and  graded  succession  of  pictures,  and  of  linking 
these  photographic  impressions  with  the  phonograph  in  one 
combination  so  as  to  present  to  the  eye  and  ear  simultane- 
ously the  sounds  and  sights  of  events  gone  by.  The  zoe- 
trope contains  a  cylinder,  ten  inches  wide  and  open  at  the 
top,  bearing  a  series  of  pictures  on  the  lower  portion  of  its 
interior.  These  pictures  represent  a  sequence  of  moving 
events,  as  wrestling,  or  the  tumbling  of  acrobats.  The 
pictures  are  jerked  along  one  after  another  so  as  to  give  a 
clumsy  suggestion  of  continuity  of  action  in  one  picture. 
Instantaneous  photography,  as  developed  by  Muybridge 
and  others,  furnished  the  opportunity  of  making  much 
more  perfect  pictures  for  continuous  reproduction,  and  Mr. 
Edison,  with  infinite  pains,  produced  an  apparatus  to  ex- 
hibit a  series  of  such  photographs  with  such  rapidity  as  to 
deceive  the  eye  and  present  an  apparently  perfect  repro- 
duction of  moving  scenes,  and  which  might  be  exhibited 
in  connection  with  the  phonograph.  The  different  forms 
of  this  invention  he  terms  the  phono-kinetograph,  phono- 
kinetoscope,  kinetograph,  and  kinetoscope,  while  the  com- 
bination of  the  whole  is  the  kineto-phonograph.  For  the 
facts  concerning  these  the  writer  is  indebted  to  a  pamphlet 
written  by  W.  K.  L.  Dickson,  who  was  associated  with 
Mr.  Edison  during  the  perfecting  of  the  devices.  The 
illustration  is  from  the  same  source,  by  the  courtesy  of 
Mr.  Dickson. 


THE  KIXETO-PHONOGRAPH.  71 

The  experiments  which  resulted  in  giving  the  world  this 
series  of  apparatus  lasted  through  a  |>eriod  of  six  years. 
The  first  photographs  taken  were  of  microscopic  size,  and 
were  mounted  on  a  cylinder  like  that  of  the  phonograph. 
The  idea  was  to  rotate  the  cylinder  in  unison  with  the 
phonographic  cylinder,  and  ojH'rate  them  synchronously. 
At  first  it  was  found  ini|M>ssible  to  secure  clear-cut  outlines 
for  the  minute  photographs.  Then  a  new  sensitive  coating 
was  tried  for  the  cylinder,  which  gave  an  exaggerated 
coarseness.  This  difficulty  was  obviated  by  enlarging  the 
size  of  the  photographs.  These  larger  pictures  were  taken 
on  the  jKriphery  of  a  disk,  which  wits  swiftly  rotated,  and 
by  turning  on  an  electric  light  for  inappreciably  short 
intervals  a  series  of  suitable  pictures  was  obtained. 

Jt  was  deemed  necessary  to  prtxluce  these  photographs 
on  the  inside  of  a  drum.  A  highly  sensitized  strip  of 
celluloid,  half  an  inch  wide,  was  tried,  and  subsequently 
superseded  by  a  strip  an  inch  and  a  half  wide,  with  mar- 
gins on  the  edges  for  perforations  at  close  and  regular  in- 
tervals. These  perforations  were  designed  to  enable  the 
teeth  of  a  locking  device  to  hold  the  film  steady  for  nine- 
tenths  of  the  one  forty-sixth  part  of  a  second,  when  a 
shutter  opened  rapidly  to  admit  the  beam  of  light,  causing 
an  image  to  be  photographed.  In  the  remaining  one-tenth 
of  the  forty-sixth  part  of  a  second  the  film  was  jerked 
forward,  only  to  be  again  arrested  for  the  shutter  to  admit 
another  beam  of  light,  so  that  forty-six  impressions  are 
taken  jx»r  second,  or  two  thousand  seven  hundred  and  sixty 
a  minute.  This  speed  is  sufficiently  fast  to  deceive  the  eye 
with  the  impression  that  a  continuous  moving  scene  is 
being  viewed.  Despite  the  required  forty-six  absolutely 
dead  stops  per  second,  the  speed  maintained  is  actually 
twentv-six  miles  an  hour. 


72  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

Positive  pictures  were  formed  from  the  negatives  thus 
obtained  by  passing  the  negatives  through  a  machine,  in 
conjunction  with  a  blank  strip  of  film,  which  after  devel- 
opment is  placed  in  the  kinetoscope  for  the  benefit  of  those 
who  peep  in.  The  next  step  was  to  reproduce  this  series  of 
pictures  in  exact  harmony  with  accompanying  sounds.  It 
was  obviously  necessary  to  take  the  pictures  at  the  same 
time  that  the  rotating  cylinder  of  the  phonograph  took  in 
the  sounds.  The  minute  stops  and  starts  of  the  picture- 
cylinder  rendered  this  a  task  of  almost  insuperable  diffi- 
culty, which  was  conquered  in  a  manner  too  intricate  and 
complicated  to  detail  here.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  the  syn- 
chronous motion  was  established,  with  all  the  perfection 
of  result  hoped  for. 

The  kineto-phonograph,  or  combined  apparatus  for  re- 
producing sights  and  sounds,  as  in  a  theatre,  is  well  shown 
in  the  accompanying  illustration.  The  actors  in  the  kineto- 
graphic  theatre  are  obliged  to  group  themselves  as  closely 
as  possible,  and  they  are  either  blinded  by  the  direct  rays 
of  the  sun  or  exposed  to  twenty  arc  lamps  so  arranged  with 
reflectors  as  to  give  some  fifty  thousand  candle-power. 

The  kinetoscope  as  best  known  to  the  public  of  to-day 
is  a  nickel-in-the-slot  affair  for  reproducing  dances  and 
boxing  bouts.  Such  is  not  its  true  mission,  however.  It 
is  meant  to  present  reproductions  of  grand  opera  and 
the  higher  class  of  enduring  theatrical  performances,  with 
the  action  and  the  sounds  in  unison.  Such  results  may 
be  made  more  life-like  by  viewing  the  pictures  through 
a  magnify  ing-glass  or  projecting  them  upon  a  screen, 
Woodville  Latham  has  experimented  with  methods  for 
reproducing  in  magnified  form  on  a  screen  the  pictures  as 
seen  in  the  kinetoscope.  He  has  been  successful,  devising 
a  means  for  making  the  performance  continuous  when  de- 


THE  KINETO-PHONOORAPH.  73 

sired.  He  calls  his  apparatus  the  eidoscope,  and  has  given 
exhibitions  in  New  York  city  and  elsewhere,  throwing 
nearly  life-size  moving  pictures  upon  a  screen. 

The  possibilities  of  the  kineto- phonograph  arc  almost 
endless.      It  may  bring  to  our  doors  the  sights  and  scenes 


11. 


•    .:   i 


THE    KINKTO-PHONOORAFH. 


which  heretofore  have  been  obtainable  only  by  travelling 
in  distant  lands.  It  will  carry  the  eloquence  of  coming 
orators  and  the  voices  of  gifted  singers  to  the  ears  of 
waking  mortals  long  after  the  original  voices  are  hushed 
in  death.  It  will  bring  to  the  bedside  of  the  invalid  all 
manner  of  amusement  suited  to  his  fancy.  It  will  give 
D  7 


74  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

to  all  the  privileges  now  open  only  to  those  few  who  gaze 
through  the  large  telescopes  at  the  wonders  of  the  planets. 
The  student  of  history  in  the  year  5000  will  be  able  to 
drop  into  some  public  resort  and  select  from  a  catalogue 
some  stirring  event  of  a  by-gone  age,  and  lo  !  the  scene 
is  before  him  as  real  in  its  action  as  on  the  day  of  its 
happening.  He  may  gaze  on  the  beauteous  women  who 
have  been  famous  because  they  outrivalled  the  beauties 
of  their  day ;  he  may  view  the  tremendous  carnage  that 
resulted  from  the  last  war ;  he  may  see  the  volcano  belch 
forth  its  fires  or  listen  to  the  tornado's  wrath.  The  ghosts 
of  all  the  past  since  1895  will  be  at  his  beck  and  call  as 
easily  as  now  we  turn  a  page  of  history.  As  Mr.  Dickson 
eloquently  puts  it — 

"  What  is  the  future  of  the  kinetograph  ?  Ask,  rather, 
from  what  conceivable  phase  of  the  future  can  it  be  de- 
barred? In  the  promotion  of  business  interests,  in  the 
advancement  of  science,  in  the  revelation  of  unguessed 
worlds,  in  its  educational  and  re-creative  powers,  and  in  its 
ability  to  immortalize  our  fleeting  but  beloved  associations, 
the  kinetograph  stands  foremost  among  the  creations  of 
modern  inventive  genius.  It  is  the  crown  and  flower 
of  nineteenth-century  magic,  the  crystallization  of  eons  of 
groping  enchantments.  In  its  wholesome,  sunny,  and  ac- 
cessible laws  are  possibilities  undreamt  of  by  the  occult 
lore  of  the  East ;  the  conservative  wisdom  of  Egypt,  the 
jealous  erudition  of  Babylon,  the  guarded  mysteries  of 
Delphic  and  Eleusinian  shrines.  It  is  the  earnest  of  the 
coming  age,  when  the  great  potentialities  of  life  shall  no 
longer  be  in  the  keeping  of  cloister  and  college,  sword  or 
money-bag,  but  shall  overflow  to  the  nethermost  portions 
of  the  earth  at  the  command  of  the  humblest  heir  of  the 
divine  intelligence." 


THE  ELECTRIC  STORAGE-BATTERY.  75 

THE    ELECTRIC    STORAGE-BATTERY. 

Success  of  the  Chloride  Accumulator  due  to  a  Mechanical  Change 
in  the  Plates— An  Auxiliary  for  Light  and  Power  Stations. 

THE  ideal  system  of  electrical  propulsion  is  by  the  util- 
ixation  of  a  battery  in  which  the  jxnver  is  stored  so  that  it 
may  l>e  carried  on  the  vehicle,  always  ready  for  use  and 
involving  no  exj>ense  when  idle.  By  the  employment  of 
this  method  outside  wires  are  disj>ensed  with,  and  the 
vehicle  can  go  anywhere  on  a  good  road  until  the  power 
in  the  battery  is  exhausted.  A  vast  amount  of  money  has 
been  expended  in  applying  this  system  of  propulsion  to 
street-cars.  There  have  been  numerous  com  panics  organ- 
ized all  over  the  world,  who  have  placed  their  ears  on  the 
market  and  proclaimed  great  things  for  them.  As  a  rule, 
they  accomplished  all  that  was  expected  of  them  in  the 
way  of  drawing  certain  loads  at  desired  sjxwls,  but  were 
all  subject  to  two  fatal  objections — the  batteries  were  too 
heavy,  and  the  plates  broke  down  and  buckled  so  fre- 
quently as  to  prove  disastrously  costly. 

A  brief  description  of  their  use  in  connection  with  the 
Julian  system  will  suffice  for  all  the  others.  This  was 
tried  on  Fourth  Avenue,  in  New  York,  in  1889.  The 
batteries  were  placed  under  the  seats,  and  recharged  from  a 
dynamo  every  four  or  five  hours.  Each  car  had  two  sets 
of  batteries,  and  exhausted  ones  were  taken  out  and  charged 
ones  inserted,  at  a  convenient  station,  with  no  appreciable 
loss  of  time.  The  cars  were  given  the  equivalent  of  thirty- 
five  horse-power  at  the  start,  and  were  exj>ected  to  consume 
twelve  horse-power  during  a  trip.  A  car  was  run  into  the 
station,  panels  at  the  ends  of  the  seats  were  removed,  and 
fresh  batteries  taken  from  shelves  within  reach.  The  ex- 
hausted batteries  were  placed  on  a  shelf,  and  the  whole 


76  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

number  automatically  shifted  to  the  generator  to  be  re- 
charged. The  motors  under  the  cars  were  flexibly  con- 
nected with  the  batteries,  and  the  large  margin  of  power 
was  considered  ample  to  oifset  accidents.  But  the  plates 
in  the  batteries  would  become  short-circuited  and  buckle, 
and  cease  to  be  of  use,  and  so  the  plant  was  finally  aban- 
doned. 

This  unfortunate  result,  with  many  others  similar,  cre- 
ated the  public  impression  that  the  storage-battery  would 
never  be  a  success ;  but  about  the  same  time  that  the  cars 
were  being  abandoned  on  Fourth  Avenue  a  company  in 
Paris  and  another  in  Philadelphia  were  experimenting  on 
parallel  lines  towards  the  goal  of  success.  It  was  discov- 
ered that  a  fusion  of  chloride  of  zinc  and  chloride  of  lead, 
when  properly  treated,  would  produce  pure  lead  in  a  crys- 
talline form,  in  which  the  molecules  are  arranged  in  a  per- 
fectly symmetrical  order  instead  of  fortuitously,  as  in  the 
mechanical  mixtures  which  had  theretofore  constituted  the 
active  material  of  the  plates  in  storage-batteries.  This 
discovery  was  rendered  of  commercial  value  only  after  a 
long  series  of  experiments  and  improvements,  conducted 
on  somewhat  different  lines,  in  Paris  by  the  Societe" 
Anonyme  pour  le  Travail  Electrique  des  Metaux,  and  in 
Philadelphia  by  the  Electric  Storage -Battery  Company. 
The  Paris  company  completed  its  experiments  and  went  to 
manufacturing  in  1889,  and  by  the  end  of  the  following 
year  had  supplied  the  city  of  Paris  with  storage-batteries 
for  a  lighting-plant  comprising  over  two  hundred  thousand 
sixteen-candle-power  lamps.  The  Philadelphia  company 
did  not  complete  a  battery  fit  for  the  market  until  1892, 
in  which  year  it  sold  its  European  rights  to  a  London 
syndicate,  and  entered  into  a  triplicate  alliance  with  them 
and  with  the  Paris  company  to  control  the  perfected 


THE  ELECTRIC  STORAGE-BATTERY.  77 

storage- battery  throughout  the  civilized  world.  To  perfect 
its  grip  in  America  the  Philadelphia  company  bought  up 
all  its  competitors  in  the  United  States. 

The  French  company  are  operating  three  lines  of  street 
railway  in  Paris,  and  are  to  o|>erate  others  in  Marseilles, 
Nice,  and  Avignon.  They  operated  the  cars  of  the  Intra- 
mural Railroad  at  the  Lyons  Exhibition  in  1894. 

The  advantages  of  the  chloride  accumulator,  as  this 
perfected  storage -battery  is  called,  can  be  U'st  conveyed 
by  a  short  description  of  the  Paris  cars,  which  have  been 
in  operation  three  years.  There  are  two  lines  running 
from  Paris  into  the  suburb  of  St.  Denis,  with  a  charging 
station  and  a  depot  at  the  latter  place.  The  generating 
plant  consists  of  three  one  hundred  and  fifty  horse-power 
lw)ilers  and  three  engines  of  corresjjonding  capacity.  The 
company  has  twenty-five  cars,  each  fitted  up  complete  with 
one  hundred  and  eight  chloride  cells  specially  designed  for 
traction  purposes.  The  life  of  this  latest  type  of  cells  has 
not  as  yet  been  ascertained,  since  none  of  them  are  as  yet 
worn  out,  but  it  is  thought  that  it  will  prove  to  be  be- 
tween twelve  thousand  and  twenty  thousand  car-miles. 
Each  cell  is  fitted  with  eleven  plates,  and  fifty-two  batteries 
are  used  on  the  line,  giving  a  total  of  five  thousand  six 
hundred  and  sixteen  cells  and  sixty-one  thousand  seven 
hundred  and  seventy-six  plates. 

The  work  that  has  to  be  performed  is  severe,  the  gra- 
dients being  as  much  as  one  in  twenty-five  for  considerable 
distances.  There  are  also  numerous  short  curves.  The 
cars  are  of  a  heavy  type,  with  inside  and  outside  seats,  and 
constructed  to  carry  fifty  passengers,  their  total  weight 
with  full  load  being  about  fourteen  tons.  The  weight  of 
a  battery  of  one  hundred  and  eight  cells,  with  which  each 
car  is  fitted,  is,  approximately,  two  and  a  half  tons,  com- 

7* 


78  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

plete  with  all  accessories,  acids,  and  boxes,  and  the  capacity 
of  the  same  is  such  as  to  be  sufficient  to  run  the  car  for  a 
distance  of  about  forty  miles  under  the  severe  conditions 
of  grade  and  curve  before  mentioned.  As  would  naturally 
be  expected,  it  is  found  that  the  best  results  in  efficiency 
and  life  are  obtained  by  running  a  car  but  twenty-five  or 
thirty  miles  before  returning  it  to  the  depot  to  have  the 
cells  recharged.  The  work  performed  daily  upon  these 
lines  is  equivalent  to  fifteen  hundred  and  fifty  car-miles. 

A  complete  understanding  of  just  what  this  perfected 
accumulator  is  will  be  of  interest,  as  showing  why  this 
form  has  triumphed  where  all  others  failed.  The  elements 
are  made  of  cast  tablets,  or  pastilles,  of  a  salt  of  lead,  en- 
closed in  a  dense  frame — composed  of  lead  and  antimony — 
cast  around  them  under  heavy  pressure.  This  plate  of 
lead  salt  so  framed  is  then  reduced  electro-chemically  to 
pure  metallic  lead.  This  gives  a  plate  composed  wholly 
of  metallic  lead,  partly  in  compact  form,  partly  in  minute 
crystalline  subdivision,  differing  only  from  a  plate  of  cast 
or  rolled  lead  in  that  some  of  its  parts  are  of  a  crystalline 
character — a  difference  purely  mechanical.  This  is  the 
same  plate  that  Plants  used,  except  for  this  important  me- 
chanical difference.  These  plates,  requiring  oxidizing,  are 
then  put  with  alternate  lead  plates  in  an  electrolytic  cell, 
and  a  current  is  passed  through  them  for  a  sufficient  time 
to  convert  the  pure  crystalline  metallic  lead  into  peroxide 
of  lead.  The  principle  is  well  explained  in  the  following 
paragraph  from  the  proceedings  of  the  Franklin  Institute  : 

"  It  is  well  known  that  in  a  crystalline  form  the  mole- 
cules of  matter  are  arranged  in  a  different  order  from  what 
they  are  in  any  mechanical  mixture.  In  the  mechanical 
mixture  the  aggregation  of  the  atoms  is  strictly  fortuitous 
— that  is  to  say,  it  is  a  mere  question  of  chance  how  they 


THE  ELECTRIC  STORAGE-BATTERY.  79 

are  arranged,  and  they  have  no  cohesion  among  themselves 
beyond  that  which  is  given  to  them  by  the  cementing  mix- 
ture which  holds  them  together.  In  the  crystalline  form, 
however,  all  this  is  changed  :  the  molecules  of  the  body 
are  arranged  in  perfect  symmetrical  order,  and  they  are  held 
together  by  molecular  affinities  which  regulate  the  order  of 
their  distribution  and  secure  the  coherence  of  the  mass.  It 
is  quite  true  that  the  material  is  denser  unless  some  means 
are  employed  to  modify  the  density  ;  but  although  this  is 
the  case,  the  molecular  channels  which  exist  in  the  inter- 
stices of  the  crystals  are  arranged  in  as  regular  order  as  the 
molecules  of  the  crystals  themselves." 

In  the  illustration  it  will  be  observed  that  there  is  a 
negative  plate,  with  round  tablets  of  active  material,  which 
have  perforations  that  permit  the  circulation  of  the  battery 
fluid.  Next  is  a  separating  piece  of  wood,  that  has  lx»en 
soaked  in  some  insulating  compound,  and  that  has  holes  op- 
posite the  tablets  in  the  plate.  Grooves  connect  these  holes, 
to  permit  the  circulation  of  the  liquid  and  to  afford  a  pas- 
sage for  gas.  A  thickness  of  asl>estos  cloth  is  seen  next 
enwrapping  a  positive  plate,  which  is  made  heavier  than 
the  negative.  This  asbestos  prevents  any  active  material 
which  may  be  loosened  from  falling  where  it  can  short- 
circuit  the  plates. 

The  discovery  and  successful  application  of  this  principle 
has  enabled  the  production  of  an  accumulator  with  a  high 
rate  of  charge  and  discharge  without  injury  to  the  plate,  a 
high  capacity  of  storage,  and  the  maintenance  of  the  volt- 
age through  a  very  large  percentage  of  the  capacity.  Along 
with  this  there  is  also  a  very  greatly  increased  durability  ; 
and  the  fact  that  the  same  number  of  ampere  hours  can  be 
stored  in  half  the  weight  of  plates,  as  against  every  other 
previous  system,  not  only  makes  their  introduction  a  dis- 


80  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

tinct  era  in  electrical  science,  but  opens  up  an  increasingly 
wide  field  for  their  use  in  every-day  life. 

Although  it  is  very  encouraging  to  observe  that  the 
chloride  accumulator  is  in  successful  use,  it  must  be  borne 
in  mind  that  for  the  operation  of  independent  tram-cars  it 

FIG.  12. 


THE  CHLORIDE  ACCUMULATOR. 


will  always  be  more  expensive  than  the  trolley,  since  there 
is  a  necessary  waste  of  electricity  in  storing  and  withdraw- 
ing the  charge.  Nevertheless,  this  form  of  storage-battery 
has  found  another  and  a  larger  field  as  an  auxiliary  to  the 
trolley. 

A  storage- battery  operated  in  connection  with  the  power- 


THE  ELECTRIC  STORAGE-BATTERY.  81 

plant  of  a  trolley  road  acts  not  only  as  an  auxiliary  to  the 
dynamos,  but  also  as  a  regulator  of  the  load  on  the  gener- 
ating apparatus?,  allowing  it  to  run  at  a  steady  and  etlicicnt 
point,  and  protecting  it  from  the  great  strains  due  to  grades 
and  to  the  starting  of  a  number  of  cars  at  one  time,  etc.  A 
battery  has  been  installed  for  this  class  of  work  in  the  Isle 
of  Man,  where  its  successful  oj>eration  has  fully  demon- 
strated the  economy  of  this  system.  The  first  installation 
of  the  kind  in  this  country  was  made  in  the  city  of  Mer- 
rill, Wisconsin,  in  January,  1895.  The  plant  there  con- 
sists of  two  hundred  and  forty  chloride  accumulators,  with 
a  capacity  of  five  hundred  amj>ere  hours  at  a  n'tty-am|x»re 
rate  of  discharge.  The  batteries  are  divided  into  four 
series  of  sixty  cells  each,  connected  to  a  switch-board  and 
so  arranged  that  cells  may  be  connected  to  the  railway — 
two  hundred  and  forty  in  a  series — or  to  lighting  circuits 
in  two  parallel  series  of  sixty  cells  each.  On  January  4, 
when  the  battery  was  connected  to  the  railway  circuit,  the 
great  improvement  in  the  running  of  the  cars  was  imme- 
diately noticed  by  all,  but  it  was  at  night  that  the  contrast 
was  most  apparent.  Instead  of  one  dimly-lighted,  slow- 
running  car,  two  brilliantly-lighted  cars  were  operated  at 
the  highest  speed  allowable  on  the  streets.  Instead  of  a 
succession  of  sharp  peaks,  the  voltage  curve  of  lighting 
became  practically  a  straight  line.  On  several  occasions 
the  cars  were  operated  by  the  battery  alone  for  several 
hours  at  a  stretch,  thus  allowing  in  the  daytime  the  entire 
shutting  down  of  the  power-plant  and  at  night  the  full 
capacity  of  the  power  for  lighting.  This  installation 
clearly  demonstrates  the  great  value  of  storage-battery  in- 
stallation in  connection  with  light  and  railway  plants.  A 
new  plant  can  be  put  in  at  a  lower  cost  with  a  storage- 
battery  than  without,  because  less  reserve  power  is  required 


82  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

of  the  engines,  boilers,  generators,  etc.,  and  established 
plants  can  be  increased  in  capacity  by  this  means  at  trifling 
cost. 

Tommasi's  multitubular  storage-battery,  which  has  been 
introduced  in  Paris,  is  another  practical  and  efficient  form 
of  accumulator,  free  from  the  defects  of  the  early  types. 
The  electrodes  are  formed  of  perforated  tubes  of  lead, 
celluloid,  or  the  like,  the  bottom  being  closed  by  an  ebonite 
plate,  in  which  is  fixed  a  lead  conducting-rod.  Oxide  of 
lead  fills  the  intervening  space  of  the  tube.  By  using 
metallic  contacts  between  the  rods  of  the  positive  and 
negative  tubes  the  current  is  spread  through  the  entire 
mass,  producing  a  chemical  circuit  with  uniform  action. 
The  tubes  do  not  expand,  and  the  active  material  is  so 
shut  in  that  it  cannot  fall  and  cause  short-circuiting. 

The  storage-battery  is  coming  into  use  in  many  minor 
fields,  and  the  more  important  of  them  are  noted  below. 

Battery  locomotives  for  mill  purposes  have  recently 
attracted  a  good  deal  of  attention.  Locomotives  of  this 
character  have  been  used  in  this  country  with  great  suc- 
cess, particularly  in  the  works  of  Norton  Brothers,  near 
Chicago,  where  locomotives  operated  by  chloride  accumu- 
lators run  through  the  mills,  in  and  out  of  the  rooms,  and 
about  the  yard,  hauling  trains  of  cars  loaded  with  tin-plate. 
Battery  locomotives  are  also  the  ideal  method  of  haulage 
in  mines,  and  without  doubt  will  be  adopted  in  the  very 
near  future. 

An  interesting  application  that  has  not  progressed  very 
far  in  this  country  is  the  propulsion  of  carriages,  omibuses, 
delivery-wagons,  etc.  This  delay  is  largely  due  to  the  fact 
that  the  roads  in  the  United  States  are  far  inferior  to  those 
of  the  long-settled  countries  of  Europe.  However,  we 
have  some  progress  to  record  in  these  vehicles.  An  elec- 


THE  ELECTRIC  STORAGE-BATTER r.  83 

trie-ally  propelled  carriage  has  been  running  in  the  parks 
of  Chicago  supplied  with  chloride  accumulators,  and  in 
Boston  a  similar  vehicle  has  recently  been  equipped.  The 
Franklin  Electric  Company,  of  Kansas  Citv,  has  just  made 
a  motor  for  a  carriage  to  be  run  by  twenty-five  chloride 
cells.  Another  vehicle,  designed  by  Morris  A:  Salom,  has 
l>een  running  successfully  about  the  streets  of  Philadelphia. 
The  Holt/er-Cabot  Electric  Company,  of  Boston,  have 
built  an  electric  carriage  in  the  shaj>e  of  an  English  drag, 
with  three  seats,  carrying  eight  to  eleven  persons.  This 
carriage,  like  the  others,  is  run  by  the  chloride  storage- 
battery. 

The  electric  launches  used  at  the  World's  Fair  in  Chi- 
cago were  run  by  these  same  accumulators.  The  attractive 
feature  in  an  electric  launch  is  the  fact  that,  besides  being 
free  from  noise,  smell,  and  danger,  no  engineer  or  attendant 
of  any  description  is  necessary  to  o|>erate  the  boat,  and 
wherever  a  trolley,  an  arc  circuit,  or  an  incandescent  circuit 
is  available,  the  batteries  can  be  recharged  with  very  little 
trouble  and  expense. 

Electric  light  and  power  stations  cannot  afford  to  be 
without  accumulators.  The  French  company  has  equipped 
some  twenty-six  central  stations  with  the  batteries.  The 
Edison  Illuminating  Company,  on  Twelfth  Street,  New 
York,  has  introduced  a  large  plant  of  chloride  accumu- 
lators. Another  installation  has  been  in  operation  since 
1893  in  the  central  station  of  the  Germantown  (Pennsyl- 
vania) Electric  Light  Company.  Many  public  institutions 
also  use  them. 

A  great  many  hundred  storage-cells  have  been  sold  for 
train-lighting.  In  some  cases,  where  conditions  permit,  bat- 
teries are  removed  from  the  train  for  charging,  and  when  on 
the  train  operate  the  full  complement  of  lights.  In  other 


84  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

cases,  a  smaller  battery,  permanently  located  on  the  car,  is 
charged  from  a  small  dynamo  connected  to  and  operated 
from  the  axle  of  the  car.  This  latter  application  prom- 
ises to  do  away  with  all  objections  raised  against  former 
methods  of  electrically  lighting  trains.  An  official  of  the 
Intercolonial  Railway  of  Canada  experimented  with  the 
chloride  accumulators  furnished  that  road,  and  short- 
circuited  one  cell  fifty-seven  times,  each  time  for  a  period 
of  an  hour  and  a  half,  without  being  able  to  damage  it. 

Yacht-lighting  is  a  field  in  which  storage-batteries  are 
indispensable.  On  a  vessel  the  noise  of  a  dynamo  in 
operation  is  intensified,  and  when  the  machine  is  run 
throughout  the  night  becomes  very  objectionable.  To 
keep  up  steam  simply  to  run  a  dynamo  when  the  vessel  is 
in  harbor  is  expensive.  A  storage-battery  obviates  these 
objections.  A  large  battery  was  installed  in  1894  on  the 
"  Marguerita,"  owned  by  Colonel  A.  J.  Drexel. 

The  lighting  of  carriages,  advertising  wagons,  etc.,  is 
another  field  in  which  chloride  accumulators  have  been 
adopted.  A  large  number  of  private  carriages  have  been 
so  equipped,  and  theatre-advertising  wagons  are  beginning 
to  use  them.  A  bicycle  lamp  operated  by  the  same  means 
has  been  placed  on  the  market.  Similar  lamps  are  used 
in  oil  refineries  by  the  men  who  go  into  the  retorts  for 
making  repairs,  and  who  have  to  encounter  explosive 
gases.  No  doubt  they  will  come  rapidly  into  use  among 
miners  also. 

The  laboratories  in  many  institutions  of  learning  are 
fitted  with  the  chloride  accumulator,  among  them  Yale, 
Harvard,  Columbia,  and  Pennsylvania. 

For  medical  and  surgical  work  these  outfits  consist  of 
two  chloride  accumulators,  arranged  to  give  two  or  four 
volts  and  five  or  ten  amperes.  They  are  used  for  cautery 


THE  ELECTRIC  STORAGE-BATTERY.  85 

work,  the  lighting  of  small  lamps,  as  for  examining  the 
inner  ear,  and  the  like. 

Accumulators  are  also  used  for  operating  dental  drills 
and  for  heat- regulating  devices  in  hotels  and  large  office- 
buildings.  Being  considered  absolutely  reliable,  they  are 
used  in  several  of  the  large  rail  road -yards  of  this  country 
to  operate  the  switches  and  signals.  The  kinetoscope,  pho- 
nograph, and  graphophone  are  all  operated  by  these  accu- 
mulators. Also  the  range-finders  used  in  coast  defence  to 
determine  the  range  of  guns. 

The  chloride  accumulator  is  used  in  telegraph  work,  the 
Western  Union  and  the  Postal  Telegraph  Companies 
having  installed  a  number  of  plants.  Among  the  uses  to 
which  the  battery  is  put  in  New  York  may  be  mentioned 
the  installation,  at  16  Broad  Street,  of  a  battery  plant  used 
in  the  oj>eratiou  of  stock-tickers.  The  battery  is  in  use'  in 
the  telegraph  service  of  numerous  railroads,  and  has  been 
generally  adopted  by  the  telephone  companies  throughout 
the  United  States. 

By  the  use  of  the  accumulators,  in  connection  with  the 
process  of  electroplating,  the  work  may  be  kept  going  on 
for  twenty-four  hours  a  day,  the  batteries  charged  by  the 
dynamo,  when  in  operation,  being  thrown  into  circuit  when 
the  dynamo  is  shut  down.  As  the  batteries  do  not  require 
attention  when  discharging,  but  one  shift  of  men  is  required 
for  twenty-four  hours'  work. 

The  accumulators  are  also  serviceable  for  automaton 
pianos,  sewing-machines,  or  any  other  domestic  mechanism 
requiring  small  power.  In  fact,  the  field  is  so  wide  that 
there  is  no  telling  where  it  will  end,  and  whether  we  shall 
not  all  carry  our  pocket-accumulators  before  a  score  of 
years  has  passed. 


86  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

ELECTRIC   PLEASURE-BOATS. 

The  Development  of  Storage-Battery  Propulsion  for  Launches — 
Proposed  Novel  Ferry-Boats. 

SUMMER  outings  have  come  to  be  a  necessity  with  the 
American  people,  and  a  vivid  interest  is  displayed  in  any- 
thing that  affords  more  enjoyment  to  tired  workers  during 
the  vacation  period.  Pleasure-boats  have  been  in  increasing 
demand  for  some  years,  and  if  they  were  as  uniformly 
cheap  as  bicycles  they  would  be  nearly  as  common.  The 
electric  launch,  which  first  came  into  general  notice  in  the 
United  States  at  the  time  of  the  Columbian  Exposition,  has 
proved  sufficiently  low  in  price  and  efficient  in  practice  to 
cause  a  boom  in  its  manufacture.  In  many  respects  the 
electric  launch  is  peculiarly  suited  to  pleasure  excursions. 
Sails  and  steam-power  both  involve  a  certain  amount  of 
labor  or  the  presence  of  a  hired  crew,  neither  of  which  is 
agreeable  to  excursionists.  The  storage-batteries  of  the 
electric  launch,  on  the  other  hand,  yield  up  their  power 
on  the  turn  of  a  little  switch  that  a  child  can  operate ; 
they  involve  the  use  of  a  current  that  does  not  give  an 
unpleasantly  severe  shock ;  and  they  cannot  blow  up  or 
blow  away.  There  is  no  smoke,  dust,  or  dirt  about  them, 
and  the  mechanism  is  so  simple  that  it  can  be  placed  under 
the  seats,  etc.,  leaving  almost  the  whole  boat  available  for 
the  use  of  the  occupants.  The  running  expenses  are  small, 
and  there  is  no  cost  for  fuel-supply  when  the  boat  is  not 
running. 

A  Frenchman  named  TrouvS  may  be  called  the  father 
of  storage-battery  boats,  since  he  built  the  first  really  prac- 
tical crafts  of  the  kind.  At  the  Paris  Exposition  of  1881 
he  exhibited  an  electric  boat  on  the  Seine,  driven  by  a 
propeller,  directly  over  which  he  mounted  a  small  motor, 


ELECTRIC  PLEASURE-BOATS.  87 

connecting  the  two  with  a  vertical  chain.  He  used  fluid- 
batteries,  which  were  practical  though  comparatively  costly 
to  run.  M.  Trouve  also  built  a  stern-wheeler — that  is,  a 
boat  with  two  paddle-wheels  set  in  the  stern — as  some 
river-boats  are  now  built  for  shoal-water  navigation. 

An  Austrian  engineer,  Anthony  Reckenzaun,  designed  a 
number  of  practical  electric  boats  in  1882  and  later.  He 
built  a  twenty-five-foot  launch  that  carried  forty-five  accu- 
mulators and  made  a  speed  of  eight  knots.  In  1883  the 
Yarrows  firm  of  English  ship-builders  scored  the  next  ad- 
vance, building  a  forty-six-foot  launch,  carrying  seventy 
accumulators,  and  showing  a  durable  speed  of  eight  miles 
or  more  per  hour. 

These  boats  were  used  in  England  some  time  U'fore  they 
became  known  in  America.  The  slow  development  of  the 
storage  battery  hindered  their  progress  at  the  start.  Five 
years  before  the  Columbian  Exj>osition  a  number  of  the 
electric  launches  were  in  regular  use  on  the  Thames  River, 
and  a  little  later  on  Lake  Windermere,  in  Lancashire. 
The  largest  of  these  was  christened  "  Viscountess  Bury," 
and  accommodates  seventy  passengers,  though  only  sixty- 
five  feet  long.  She  has  a  ten-horse-po\ver  motor  and  a 
bronze  propeller.  She  rents  for  sixty  dollars  a  day,  in- 
cluding a  crew,  so  that  a  party  can  club  together  and  secure 
a  day's  outing  in  her  on  the  water  for  only  a  dollar  a  head. 
Smaller  craft  of  the  same  sort  on  the  Thames  rent  as  low 
as  fifteen  dollars  per  day,  including  the  services  of  a  deck- 
hand, and  minor  charges.  The  larger  sizes  of  such  boats 
are  capable  of  making  a  speed  of  fifteen  or  sixteen  miles 
an  hour  in  spurts,  and  have  a  durable  speed  of  nine  or  ten 
miles  an  hour.  The  regulations  on  the  Thames  restrict 
them  to  six  miles  an  hour,  so  that  the  enjoyment  of  travel- 
ling in  them  is  of  a  decidedly  placid  nature. 


88 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


Doubtless  one  reason  why  the  boats  were  introduced  in 
Chicago  in  1892  was  because  of  the  success  met  with  by  a 
small  flotilla  at  the  Edinburgh  International  Exhibition  in 
1890.  Four  forty-foot  boats  plied  there  during  the  season, 
carrying  as  high  as  two  thousand  five  hundred  passengers 
in  a  day,  at  a  four-cent  fare.  In  these  launches  the  seats 
were  run  around  the  sides,  so  that  forty  passengers  could 
be  accommodated.  The  accumulators  were  arranged  under 
the  seats,  so  as  to  give  ballast  to  the  craft. 

The  Electric  Launch  and  Navigation  Company  of  New 
York  bought  the  franchise  for  navigating  the  Exposition 
water-ways  at  Chicago,  and  ran  fifty  thirty-six-foot  boats 
there  through  the  season,  carrying  about  one  million  pas- 
sengers, mostly  on  three-mile  trips,  at  a  cost  of  a  fraction 
under  six  cents  per  mile  per  boat.  The  receipts  were  close 
to  half  a  million  dollars,  and,  as  the  boats  cost  less  than 
one  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  dollars  and  were  afterwards 
sold  for  about  half  that  sum,  it  will  be  seen  that,  with 
operating  expenses  of  only  fifteen  thousand  dollars,  there 
was  a  good  margin  for  some  one  to  make  a  profit. 

FIG.  13. 


ELECTRIC  LAUNCH. 


The  illustration  shows  one  of  these  boats  in  section. 
The  little  propeller  is  driven  by  a  shaft  directly  connected 
to  the  motor  in  the  bottom  of  the  boat,  the  thrust-bearing 
being  fitted  with  friction-balls,  like  a  bicycle-wheel.  The 


ELECTRIC  PLEASURE-BOATS.  89 

motors  were  four  horse-power,  and  were  arranged  for  four 
speeds.  Sixty-six  accumulator  cells  of  one  hundred  and 
fifty  ampere  hours'  capacity  were  used,  the  charging  re- 
quiring from  four  to  seven  hours,  according  to  the  strength 
of  current  used,  and  being  done  entirely  at  night.  The 
cost  of  charging  the  batteries  was  about  fifty-five  cents  a 
day.  The  method  of  charging  was  simply  to  run  the  boat 
into  a  slip  at  the  charging  station  and  connect  the  accumu- 
lators with  wires  to  a  dynamo.  A  small  steering-wheel 
was  placed  forward,  and  this,  with  a  lever-switch  for 
turning  the  current  on  and  off,  completed  the  operating 
mechanism. 

In  1888,  Reckenzaun,  being  then  in  America,  built  a 
launch  in  Newark  carrying  batteries  good  for  ten  hours' 
run  of  sixty  to  seventy-five  miles.  She  created  consider- 
able attention  about  New  York  harbor,  and  later  at  San 
Francisco.  She  was  lighted  with  incandescent  lamps,  and 
would  carry  some  twenty  passengers.  A  line  was  run 
from  the  factory  of  the  Electrical  Accumulator  Company, 
in  Newark,  a  distance  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile,  to  the  water, 
to  charge  her  batteries. 

John  Jacob  Astor  has  taken  an  interest  in  these  boats, 
and  had  two  or  three  built  for  his  own  use.  The  United 
States  navy  also  had  a  few  electric  gigs.  One  of  them  so 
interested  the  Grand  Duke  Alexander,  of  Russia,  that 
the  Navy  Department  presented  him  with  it.  Since  then 
the  boats  have  come  into  considerable  favor  in  Russia. 

General  C.  H.  Barney,  who  managed  the  World's  Fair 
fleet  at  Chicago,  was  so  impressed  with  the  good  points  of 
the  business  that  he  has  gone  into  it  at  Boston,  with  other 
capitalists,  on  a  very  large  scale,  and  expects  shortly  to 
have  two  hundred  and  fifty  electric  boats,  of  all  sizes  and 
styles,  plying  about  the  waters  of  the  Hub  parks  and  in  the 

8* 


90  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

harbor.  This  is  the  largest  undertaking  of  its  kind,  and, 
if  it  proves  profitable,  will  result  in  their  utilization  in  all 
the  park  lakes  of  the  country.  Indeed,  several  other  places 
are  being  provided  with  these  pleasure-boats.  New  Haven 
has  them  at  Lake  Saltonstall,  Philadelphia  at  Fairrnount 
Park,  Altoona  at  Lakemont  Park,  Milwaukee  is  to  have 
them  on  the  river,  and  Newport,  Asbury  Park,  and  other 
resorts  are  falling  into  line.  It  may  be  interesting  to  some 
to  know  that  these  launches  cost  but  eight  hundred  and 
sixty  dollars  for  a  twenty -foot  size,  equipped  with  twenty 
batteries,  and  capable  of  four  and  a  half  to  five  miles  an 
hour,  which  may  be  increased  to  seven  miles  if  it  is  desired 
to  race.  The  largest  electric  launch  in  use  is  believed  to  be 
the  "  Electron,"  owned  by  James  Bigler,  and  run  at  Atlan- 
tic City,  New  Jersey.  She  is  seventy-six  feet  long,  and 
carries  three  hundred  and  seventy-six  cells,  developing  a 
capacity  of  about  sixteen  miles  an  hour.  Her  cost  is  esti- 
mated at  eight  thousand  to  ten  thousand  dollars.  Naphtha 
launches  sell  at  about  the  same  prices.  They  have  the  ad- 
vantage at  present  of  being  more  readily  supplied  with  fuel, 
since  they  use  a  fluid  which  is  sold  in  every  small  town, 
while  the  electric  launches  can  only  be  charged  in  large 
cities  or  at  special  stations.  On  the  other  hand,  the  dirt 
and  annoyance  of  an  engine,  together  with  the  bother  of 
running  it,  tend  to  prejudice  the  public  in  favor  of  the 
more  recent  invention. 

An  interesting  row-boat  is  made  on  the  principle  of  the 
electric  launch.  It  is  something  of  a  misnomer  to  call  it  a 
row-boat,  since  it  is  propelled  by  a  little  battery  and  motor, 
but,  as  it  can  be  rowed  when  the  battery  gives  out,  the  name 
will  pass.  A  seventeen-foot  boat  has  a  floating  capacity  of 
about  nine  hundred  and  fifty  pounds,  and  may  be  expected 
to  carry  four  passengers  at  a  speed  of  three  miles  an  hour, 


ELECTRIC  PLEASURE-BOATS.  91 

for  six  or  seven  hours,  at  a  cost  of  three  eents  an  hour  for 
electricity.  The  boat  with  equipment  weighs  four  hundred 
and  ninetv  pounds,  and  the  cost  is  nearly  a  dollar  a  pound 
— a  figure  which  competition  may  be  expected  to  reduce 
in  time.  For  fishing,  such  a  boat  has  one  rare  advantage. 
An  incandescent  lamp  may  be  attached  to  the  battery  and 
let  down  to  lure  the  silly  fish. 

A  few  years  since,  Louis  S.  Clarke,  of  Pittsburg,  Penn- 
sylvania, built  an  electrical  catamaran  that  attracted  much 
attention.  He  used  sheet-iron  for  the  twin  hulls,  which  were 
twenty-two  feet  long.  These  were  set  four  and  a  half  feet 
apart,  and  a  platform  was  laid  on  to  carry  the  batteries, 
motor,  and  passengers.  Twenty-six  cells  were  used,  and, 
being  the  owner  of  a  steam-launch  which  carried  a  dyn- 
amo, Mr.  Clarke  is  able  to  use  the  catamaran  as  a  service- 
boat  for  the  larger  craft,  and  charge  it  at  its  batteries  at  his 
convenience.  The  motor  is  of  the  Gramme  type,  made  on 
the  owner's  designs.  Two  little  switches  suffice  to  do  all 
the  manoauvring,  the  tiller  being  the  only  other  device 
with  which  the  occupants  have  to  bother.  The  speed  of 
this  curious  little  craft  is  about  four  miles  an  hour. 

Mrs.  F.  A.  Truax,  of  New  York  City,  has  had  a  novel 
electric  boat  built  on  her  own  designs,  showing  that  there 
are  women  as  well  as  men  who  can  invent  mechanisms.  It 
is  a  four-wheeled  paddle-boat,  so  constructed  that  it  can  be 
run  on  land  on  the  wheels  when  portage  is  desirable.  The 
whole  affair  is  very  light,  the  motor,  which  is  of  the  recip- 
rocating type,  connecting  directly  with  one  of  the  axles, 
weighing  but  eighty-seven  pounds,  while  the  weight  of  the 
twenty-cell  battery  is  given  at  sixty-four  pounds,  which 
must  be  a  mistake,  since  batteries  for  this  purpose  are 
made  of  lead,  and  are  always  heavy. 

Electric  boats  for  ferries  may  be  operated  in  two  othei 


92  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

ways  than  those  described,  as  is  very  ingeniously  set  forth 
by  Messrs.  T.  C.  Martin  and  Joseph  Sachs,  in  their  book 
on  "  Electrical  Boats  and  Navigation/'  to  which  the  writer 
is  indebted  for  many  of  the  facts  here  stated.  The  methods 
suggested  appear  to  be  the  invention  of  Mr.  Sachs,  though 
the  fact  is  not  stated.  One  plan  is  a  trolley  ferry,  the  boat 
carrying  a  wire  rope  depending  from  a  wire  hung  high 
above  the  river  and  riding  along  on  a  trolley-wheel.  The 
wire,  of  course,  is  connected  with  some  near-by  power- 
station.  The  plan  seems  entirely  feasible,  especially  for  a 
ferry  connecting  with  an  electric  railway.  As  the  boat 
would  require  no  engines,  only  a  motor  and  propeller,  it 
could  be  built  at  a  very  small  first  expense,  and  the  cost  of 
operating  should  be  quite  as  cheap  as  steam.  Such  a  ferry 
could  be  easily  arranged  under  the  Brooklyn  bridge,  and 
might  relieve  that  structure  of  some  of  its  surplus  traffic. 
Where  an  overhead  wire  would  be  an  obstruction  to  naviga- 
tion an  alternate  plan  is  proposed,  the  wire  being  submerged 
in  a  cable,  and  picked  up  and  run  over  a  reel  as  the  ferry 
proceeds.  How  the  difficulty  of  insulating  the  wire  in  the 
cable,  and  rendering  it  available  for  use  on  the  boat,  is  got 
over  is  not  stated,  but  probably  there  is  a  way  of  doing  it. 
The  future  for  electric  boats  is  bright.  Their  develop- 
ment has  been  slower  than  that  of  electric  cars,  but  it  is 
just  as  sure.  The  battery  principle  confines  them  to  short 
voyages,  but  for  inland  and  coast  travel  they  easily  have 
the  call. 


THE   OCEAN  GREYHOUNDS.  93 

THE    OCEAN    GREYHOUNDS. 

Some  Time  we  shall  cross  the  Atlantic  in  Four  Days,  if  Improve- 
ments keep  coming  — Recent  Fast  Liners. 

THOUGH  Robert  Fulton  is  usually  credited  with  build- 
ing and  operating  the  first  steamboat  in  the  United  States, 
it  is  a  fact  that  he  was  anticipated  over  twenty-one  years 
by  James  Rumsey,  of  Charleston,  West  Virginia.  In 
1785  he  built  an  eighty-foot  Ixxit  in  Frederick  County, 
Maryland,  the  making  of  the  boilers,  engines,  and  metal- 
work  being  divided  between  several  near-by  concerns.  The 
inventor  did  not  use  either  paddle-wheels  or  propellers, 
but  pumps,  drawing  in  water  at  the  bows  and  forcing  it 
out  at  the  stern.  His  machinery  was  very  inadequate,  as 
may  be  inferred  from  the  fact  that  it  only  weighed  six 
hundred  and  sixty-five  pounds,  including  boiler,  engine, 
pumps,  and  pipes.  A  public  trial  of  the  boat  took  place 
March  14,  1786,  on  the  Potomac  River.  The  sj>eed  made 
is  not  recorded,  but  of  course  it  could  have  been  nothing 
satisfactory  with  such  crude  apparatus.  Rumsey  was 
patronized  by  both  George  Washington  and  Governor 
Thomas  Johnson,  of  Maryland,  who  hoped  for  his  success 
principally  as  a  means  of  expediting  travel  on  the  then 
proposed  Chesapeake  and  Ohio  Canal.  This  experiment 
is  a  matter  of  record  in  several  State  paj>ers. 

In  1805,  Colonel  A.  E.Stevens  built  a  launch  with  twin 
propeller-screws,  arranged  as  in  the  modern  ocean  flyers, 
and  driven  by  a  small  steam-engine.  For  some  reason 
he  failed  to  demonstrate  the  value  of  his  device,  and  the 
screw-propeller  did  not  come  into  approved  use  until  1840. 

There  were  also  other  experimenters  in  the  field  pre- 
vious to  1807,  the  year  of  Fulton's  successful  run  with  the 
"  Clermont,"  but,  as  none  of  them  perfected  their  inven- 


94  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

tions,  Fulton  is  entitled  to  the  full  measure  of  credit  which 
historians  unanimously  accord  him — that  of  being  the  first 
to  demonstrate  that  steamboat  navigation  was  a  practical 
and  remunerative  method  of  travelling  the  waters  of  the 
deep.  The  "  Clermont"  was  a  fair-sized  steamer,  being 
one  hundred  and  thirty-three  feet  long  and  eighteen  feet 
beam,  with  a  capacity  of  one  hundred  and  sixty  tons. 
Her  design  was  scarcely  beautiful,  since  her  lines  were 
those  made  familiar  to  us  by  the  modern  canal-boat.  The 
side  paddle-wheels  were  not  protected  by  boxes,  and  the 
engine,  boiler,  and  other  machinery  were  also  exposed. 
After  a  few  experimental  trips,  in  which  she  developed  a 
speed  of  about  five  miles  an  hour,  she  was  put  in  the  docks 
to  be  enlarged,  and  for  various  alterations  in  mechanism 
which  the  test  had  shown  to  be  necessary.  Colonel  John 
Stevens,  of  Brooklyn,  was  only  a  few  days  behind  Fulton 
with  a  steamboat,  and  his  "  Phoenix"  was  the  first  steamer 
to  venture  on  an  ocean  voyage,  making  a  trip  to  Phila- 
delphia. 

Our  English  cousins  built  their  first  practical  steamboat 
five  years  after  Fulton's  trip  on  the  Hudson,  Henry  Bell 
being  the  designer.  This  boat  was  named  the  "  Comet," 
and  was  forty  feet  long.  She  was  propelled  by  a  three- 
horse-power  engine.  All  the  early  designers  seemed  to 
fail  to  appreciate  the  need  of  a  large  engine  to  secure  a 
desirable  speed. 

In  1808  three  steamboats  began  to  make  regular  trips 
between  Albany  and  New  York,  and  three  years  later 
steam  navigation  began  on  the  Mississippi.  Within  the 
following  five  years  steamboat  lines  were  established  on 
the  Great  Lakes,  the  St.  Lawrence  River,  and  on  many 
of  the  river  and  coast  routes  of  Great  Britain. 

The  first  Atlantic  steamship,  as  well  as  the  last  of  the 


THE   OCEAN  GREYHOUNDS.  95 

ocean  greyhounds,  was  built  in  America.  The  "  Savannah" 
was  originally  a  sailing  vessel,  but  was  fitted  with  paddle- 
wheels  that  could  be  removed  inboard  in  bad  weather,  a 
precaution  that  makes  one  smile  nowadays.  She  crossed 
from  New  York  to  Liverpool  in  June,  1819,  in  twenty-five 
days,  creating  the  first  record  between  those  cities.  She 
used  her  sails  a  part  of  the  time,  and  her  engines  were  not 
deemed  an  entire  success,  l>eing  afterwards  removed.  Jn 
1838  the  "Sirius"  and  "Great  Western"  were  built  on  the 
other  side,  and  in  April  of  that  year  they  crossed  to  New 
York  in  nineteen  and  fifteen  days  respectively.  This 
shortening  of  the  time  settled  the  future  of  ocean  naviga- 
tion, and,  the  screw-propeller  being  introduced  by  Ericsson 
a  little  later,  the  trips  regularly  increased  in  speed.  The 
first  Cunarder  was  the  "  Britannia,"  which  left  Liver  pool 
on  its  first  trip  on  July  4,  1840,  and  reached  Boston  four- 
teen days  and  eight  hours  later. 

The  first  man-of-war  to  which  the  screw-propeller  was 
applied  was  the  "  Princeton,"  whose  machinery  was  de- 
signed by  Captain  John  Ericsson  in  1841.  The  first 
large  iron  steamboat  was  the  "  Great  Britain,"  built  about 
1842,  though  iron  was  used  in  the  construction  of  vessels' 
frames  as  early  as  1820.  She  was  three  hundred  and 
twenty-two  feet  long  and  three  thousand  four  hundred 
tons  burden.  She  was  still  in  use  as  a  coal  hulk  in  1894. 
Steel  began  to  replace  iron  about  1880,  and  now  it  is  rarely 
that  any  other  material  is  used  for  large  steamers  for  ocean 
traffic.  The  famous  "Great  Eastern,"  built  in  1854,  to 
show  what  ship-builders  could  do  when  they  tried,  proved 
too  big  to  pay  dividends,  and  probably  would  have  been 
left  to  rot  had  not  the  submarine  cable-laying  industry 
sprung  up  in  time  to  furnish  her  with  employment.  Her 
enormous  capacity— twenty-seven  thousand  tons — rendered 


96  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

her  suitable  for  carrying  great  lengths  of  cable.  The  most 
recent  of  the  modern  steamers,  however,  closely  approach 
her  in  size,  and,  if  the  course  of  development  keeps  on, 
some  of  them  will  surpass  her  within  twenty  years. 

The  Atlantic  steamers  are  undoubtedly  the  finest  ocean 
steamers  in  the  world,  and  have  steadily  improved  since 
the  days  of  the  first  Cunarder.  There  has  been  great 
rivalry  between  competing  lines  in  the  matter  of  reducing 
the  time  of  crossing,  and  each  new  vessel  brought  out  has 
succeeded  in  shaving  the  record.  In  1868  it  required  nine 
or  ten  days  to  cross  the  big  pond.  In  1874  the  "Ger- 
manic" and  "  Britannia"  cut  the  record  to  about  seven  and 
a  quarter  days.  In  the  latter  part  of  1893  and  1894  the 
"  Lucania"  and  "  Campania,"  twin  ships  of  the  Cunard 
line,  took  turns  in  reducing  the  record  for  some  months, 
bringing  the  time  to  less  than  five  and  a  half  days.  The 
vessels  are  almost  identical  in  every  respect,  being  built  as 
near  alike  as  possible.  The  length  is  six  hundred  and 
twenty- two  feet  over  all ;  breadth,  sixty- five  and  a  quarter 
feet;  depth  from  shade  deck,  fifty-nine  and  a  half  feet; 
displacement,  thirteen  thousand  tons.  The  keel  is  a  flat 
plate  one  inch  thick  and  fifty-four  inches  wide.  The  side 
frames  or  ribs  are  placed  thirty  inches  apart,  and  are 
mostly  of  channel  section,  eight  by  four  by  four  inches. 
There  are  eighteen  transverse  bulkheads,  almost  as  strongly 
made  as  the  main  shell.  They  are  all  water-tight,  and  the 
greatest  distance  between  any  two  athwartship  is  sixty-five 
feet.  It  would  be  impossible  to  sink  one  of  these  vessels 
without  literally  crushing  at  least  two-thirds  of  her  bulk. 
The  coal-bunkers  and  bulkheads  are  so  arranged  as  to  afford 
protection  to  her  machinery  from  rapid-fire  guns,  should 
she  ever  encounter  pirates  or  be  called  upon  to  do  cruiser- 
service  in  time  of  war.  Each  set  of  engines  has  five 


THE  OCEAN  GREYHOUNDS.  97 

cylinders  for  quintuple  expansion  of  the  steam.  This  fea- 
ture has  created  much  discussion  among  engineers,  and  the 
consensus  of  opinion  would  seem  to  be  that  it  remains  to 
be  proved  whether  anything  over  three  cylinders  is  an  ad- 
vantage in  operation.  Each  added  cylinder  is  necessarily 
larger  than  the  others,  and  requires  a  greater  jxwer  to 
move  its  piston.  The  Cramps  have  declared  in  favor  of 
four  cylinders  as  giving  the  best  results,  but  probably  there 
are  more  modern  vessels  afloat  with  three  cylinders  than 
any  other  number.  The  "  Campania's"  high-pressure  cyl- 
inders are  thirty-seven  inches  in  diameter,  the  intermediate 
cylinder  is  seventy-nine  inches,  and  the  two  low-pressure 
cylinders  each  ninety- eight  inches.  The  stroke  of  all  the 
pistons  is  the  same — sixty-nine  inches — all  being  connected 
with  the  same  crank-shafl.  From  the  base  of  the  engines 
to  the  top  of  the  cylinders  is  forty-seven  feet.  Each  crank- 
shaft, together  with  the  thrust-shaft,  with  which  it  connect** 
to  send  the  power  to  the  propeller,  weighs  one  hundred 
and  ten  tons.  There  are  two  profilers,  each  of  which 
consists  of  three  blades  of  manganese  bronze  and  a  boss 
of  Vickers  steel.  Each  blade  weighs  eight  tons.  Great 
care  has  been  taken  to  guard  against  any  chance  of  the 
propellers  racing — that  is,  running  at  enormously  high 
speed  when  out  of  the  water.  There  are  governors  on  the 
shafts  and  on  the  engines,  and,  in  addition,  an  emergency 
governor-gear  that  will  stop  the  engines  automatically  if 
the  rate  of  speed  for  which  they  are  set  is  exceeded. 

No  less  than  a  hundred  and  two  furnaces  are  used  for 
the  boilers.  The  latter  are  worked  at  a  pressure  of  one 
hundred  and  sixty-five  pounds,  and  are  the  largest  ever 
built  for  that  pressure.  Each  of  the  main  boilers  con- 
tains a  mile  and  a  quarter  of  tubing,  or  a  total  of  fifteen 
miles  of  tubing  for  the  ship.  There  is  a  funnel  or  smoke- 

K        9  9 


98  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

stack  for  each  of  the  groups  of  boilers,  and  the  size  of 
them  gives  some  hint  of  the  combustion  below.  They  are 
oval  in  shape,  being  thirteen  by  nineteen  feet  in  diameter, 
and  over  one  hundred  feet  in  length.  They  are  made  oval 
in  shape  so  that  they  may  present  the  narrow  surface  fore 
and  aft,  reducing  the  loss  from  wind-pressure  when  going 
against  the  wind. 

A  few  other  figures  will  serve  to  give  an  idea  of  the  size 
and  complete  appointments  of  these  vessels.  The  upper 
deck  affords  a  promenade  of  a  quarter  of  a  mile  before 
coming  around  to  the  starting-point.  There  are  thirteen 
hundred  and  fifty  electric  lights,  supplied  through  fifty 
miles  of  wires.  The  draught  of  water  under  load  is  thirty 
feet.  There  are  seven  levels  or  decks.  The  pumps  deliver 
thirty-two  thousand  gallons  of  water  per  minute  to  the 
boilers.  The  boilers  have  a  capacity  of  thirty  thousand 
horse-power.  The  durable  speed  obtained  is  twenty-one 
and  a  half  knots  an  hour. 

Another  pair  of  twin  ships  equal  in  interest  to  the 
"  Campania"  and  "  Lucania"  is  the  "  St.  Louis'7  and  "  St. 
Paul/7  of  the  American  line.  These  are  the  first  great 
ocean  passenger  steamers  built  in  the  United  States,  having 
come  from  the  Cramps'  ship-yard  in  Philadelphia.  On 
her  maiden  run  along  the  coast  the  "  St.  Louis"  developed 
a  speed  of  twenty-two  and  three-quarter  knots,  which 
gives  reason  for  hoping  that  the  new  pair  may  prove  the 
fastest  of  their  kind,  though  exceeded  in  size  and  power 
by  some  of  the  foreign  builds.  The  "  St.  Louis"  is  five 
hundred  and  fifty-four  feet  over  all,  and  sixty- three  feet 
beam,  with  a  depth  of  forty -two  feet.  The  length  is  ten 
feet  in  excess  of  the  "Paris"  and  "New  York,"  and 
sixty-eight  feet  less  than  the  "  Campania"  and  "  Lucania." 
The  engines  develop  twenty-six  thousand  horse-power,  and 


THE   OCEAN  GREYHOUND?.*. 

are  of  the  quadrublc  type,  expanding  the  steam  four  times. 
Steam  is  used  at  two  hundred  pounds  pressure.  Each 
engine  has  six  cylinders  and  four  piston-rods.  In  the 
ordinary  type  of  quadruple-expansion  engine  there  are 
four  cylinders  set  in  line.  In  the  "  St.  Louis"  the  high- 
pressure  and  low-pressure  cylinders  are  divided  into  two, 
each  pair  having  a  common  piston.  Steam  enters  the 
two  high-pressure  cylinders  simultaneously,  is  partially 
expanded,  and  passes  in  turn  to  the  first  intermediate  and 
the  second  intermediate  cylinders.  Then  it  is  again  di- 
vided, and  passes  simultaneously  to  the  two  large'  low- 
pressure  cylinders.  After  working  in  these  it  is  combined 
again,  passing  into  the  condensers,  where  it  is  turned  into 
water  and  pumped  back  into  the  boilers  to  be  made  into 
steam  again.  Electricity  is  used  in  the  lighting  and  to 
o|HTate  the  ventilating  plants,  of  which  there  are  four. 
The  outfit  of  life-boats  is  very  complete,  there  being  four- 
teen of  the  ordinary  type,  fourteen  of  collapsable  design, 
and  four  metal,  besides  a  cutter  and  a  gig.  The  appoint- 
ments for  passengers  are  most  complete  and  ornate. 

The  query  is  often  raised,  Are  we  not  almost  at  the 
fastest  limit  of  steamboat  si>eed?  Can  we  ever  exj)ect 
steamboats  to  cross  the  Atlantic  in  less  than  five  days? 
Has  not  development  in  this  direction  about  exhausted 
itself?  The  writer  thinks  not.  If  we  could  not  hope  for 
tatter  engines  than  we  have  now,  and  had  to  depend  wholly 
on  increased  size  for  more  efficiency,  the  end  would  be  near 
at  hand.  The  present  growth  is  limited  principally  by  the 
enormous  coal  consumption.  Some  statistician  has  figured 
that  a  vessel  could  be  built  with  a  forty-knot  speed  if  ar- 
rangements were  made  for  one  hundred  and  sixty  thousand 
horse-power  engines  and  storage  for  a  coal  consumption  of 
two  thousand  tons  a  dav.  The  fastest  of  the  liners  now 


102  WONDERS'.  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

carries  two  thousand  five  hundred  tons  of  coal  on  a  trip, 
from  which  it  may  be  gathered  that  the  size  of  the  forty- 
knot  vessel  would  be  so  great  as  to  prohibit  its  use  with 
present  engines.  There  are  torpedo-boats  which  make 
thirty  or  more  knots  an  hour,  but  it  must  be  remembered 
that  they  do  not  carry  coal  enough  to  last  them  for  more 
than  a  day's  travel  at  that  speed.  It  follows  that  if  we 
can  save  coal  consumption  we  can  get  more  speed,  for  we 
can  build  the  engines.  Tesla  has  shown  us  that  a  boiler 
can  be  run  at  three  hundred  pounds  pressure,  and  his  oscil- 
lator promises  a  great  saving  in  fuel.  If  a  steamboat 
could  be  built  with  oscillators  instead  of  steam-engines, 
and  consume  acetylene  gas  instead  of  coal  for  fuel,  then 
we  could  lop  off  a  day  or  two  more  from  the  time  of  cross- 
ing. The  indications  are  that  such  improvements  will  be 
made  in  the  future,  and  that  in  this  way  the  time  \vill  be 
shortened,  so  that  in  twenty  years  we  shall  look  back  on  the 
fast  steamers  here  described  as  slow  old  tubs. 


RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  GUNS  AND 
ARMOR. 

The  Supremacy  of  Rapid-Fire  Guns — Improvements  in  hardening 
Armor — The  New  Dynamite  Gun  and  the  Position-Finder. 

HUMANITARIANS  generally  are  in  hopes  that  the  science 
of  war  has  developed  until  it  closely  resembles  the  science 
of  peace,  which  must  come  to  civilized  nations  when  war 
means  utter  annihilation.  That  this  period  is  close  at  hand 
is  a  conviction  which  forces  itself  upon  the  mind  after 
a  review  of  the  progress  made  in  offensive  weapons  since 
the  Civil  War.  At  that  date  the  muzzle-loading  rifle,  with 


RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  GUNS  AND  ARMOR.       103 

the  percussion  cap,  was  the  principal  weapon  of  the  foot- 
soldier.  With  this  two  shots  a  minute  could  be  fired,  and 
it  was  possible  to  inflict  harm  within  a  range  of  half  a 
mile,  though  it  was  really  difficult  to  shoot  to  kill  at  three 
hundred  yards.  To-day  the  troops  of  the  United  States 
use  the  Krag-Jorgensen  magazine  rifle,  carrying  four 
cartridges  at  a  loading,  and  capable  of  discharging  about 
twenty  shots  a  minute.  The  bullets  are  longer,  of  less 
calibre,  and  lighter  than  formerly,  but  owing  to  improved 
powder  have  a  much  greater  range  and  penetration.  They 
will  kill  at  a  distance  of  two  miles,  which  is  about  as  far 
as  a  man  can  comfortably  see  another  without  the  aid  of  a 
glass.  They  are  further  dangerous  in  that  the  path  of  the 
bullet  is  so  nearly  a  straight  line  as  to  sweep  all  the  terri- 
tory between  the  firer  and  the  point  aimed  at,  whereas 
with  old-time  guns  the  bullets  mostly  passed  over  the 

FIG.  15. 


heads  of  intervening  soldiers.  The  best  bullets  used  are 
made  with  a  hard  lead  core  enveloped  in  a  case  of  sheet 
steel  that  has  been  plated  with  nickel-cop  per.  These  will 
penetrate  about  five  feet  of  pine  wood  or  a  foot  of  hard 

9* 


104  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

sand.  William  Sellers  &  Co.'s  machine  for  rifling  such 
guns  is  here  shown. 

The  Lee  rifle,  designed  by  James  Paris  Lee,  of  Hart- 
ford, Connecticut,  has  been  adopted  by  the  United  States 
navy,  and  is  much  like  the  United  States  army  rifle, 
though  using  a  bullet  of  smaller  calibre.  The  former  is 
two  hundred  and  ninety- five  thousandths  of  an  inch,  the 
latter  two  hundred  and  thirty-six  thousandths,  which  gives 
a  lighter  weapon  capable  of  killing  at  about  a  mile  and  a 
half.  The  charge  is  thirty-six  grains  of  rifleite — one  of 
the  most  powerful  of  the  new  smokeless  powders.  The 
cartridges  are  put  up  in  little  packages  of  five,  which  con- 
stitute a  load  for  the  magazine.  They  can  be  slipped  in  so 
rapidly  that  it  is  possible  to  fire  eight  rounds  (forty  shots) 
in  one  minute.  Other  nations  use  equally  effective  patterns 
of  rifle :  the  French  use  the  Lebel,  the  British  the  Lee- 
Metford,  Austria  the  Maunlicher,  Germany  the  Hebler, 
and  so  on,  all  these  having  been  introduced  within  a  very 
few  years. 

Machine-guns,  firing  from  a  series  of  barrels,  have  been 
made  to  discharge  twelve  hundred  bullets  a  minute.  This 
has  been  deemed  an  unnecessary  waste  of  powder  and  lead, 
and  the  best  of  them,  as  the  Maxim,  now  discharge  about 
two  hundred  and  forty  to  four  hundred  cartridges  a  minute. 
They  are  arranged  to  spread  the  shot  so  effectively  that 
nothing  unprotected  can  live  before  their  fire. 

The  improvement  in  large  guns  has  been  as  marked  as 
in  small-arms.  The  great  weapon  of  assault  is  now  the 
quick-firing  rifled  gun  of  from  four  to  eight  inches  calibre. 
At  the  close  of  the  Civil  War  we  were  using  quite  formi- 
dable cannon,  the  eight- inch  Parrott  rifle  firing  a  one-hun- 
dred-and-fifty-pound  shot  with  a  force  calculated  to  carry 
-it  through  five  inches  of  wrought  iron  armor,  which  was 


RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  GUNS  AND  ARMOR.       105 

about  the  heaviest  armor  employed  at  that  time.  Modern 
six- inch  rapid- fire  guns  are  much  lighter  than  the  Parrott, 
as  well  as  more  effective.  They  discharge  projectiles  of 
from  ninety  to  one  hundred  pounds  with  a  force  that  will 
penetrate  a  foot  and  a  half  of  wrought  iron,  and,  as  they  can 
be  fired  at  the  remarkable  speed  of  eight  or  even  ten  shots  a 
minute,  they  are  the  most  useful  artillery  we  have.  They 
were  introduced  about  1886,  and  have  undergone  marked 
improvement  since  that  time.  The  greatest  gain  in  their 
efficiency  comes  from  the  use  of  cordite  instead  of  pebble 
powder.  Cordite  is  so  called  because  it  is  made  in  lengths 
resembling  short  pieces  of  cord.  It  is  a  mixture  of  nitro- 
•cellulose  and  nitro-glycerin,  with  a  little  added  mineral 
matter.  It  is  smokeless  and  possesses  fully  three  times  the 
explosive  force  of  j>ebble  powder. 

The  Armstrong  gun,  shown  in  the  illustration,  is  one  of 
the  best  guns  of  this  type,  being  of  the  design  marketed  in 
1894.  It  is  made  in  sizes  from  four  to  eight  inches.  It 
has  a  protective  shield  some  two  inches  thick,  sheltering 
the  gunners  from  rifle-bullets.  The  wheels  for  training 
the  gun  are  on  the  right,  out  of  view.  The  breech-block, 
it  will  be  seen,  swings  on  a  stout  hinge,  and  may  be  opened 
with  a  single  motion.  The  block  is  secured  in  place  by 
what  is  termed  an  interrupted  screw,  having  alternate  lines 
of  threads  and  blanks.  By  this  arrangement,  instead  of 
having  to  screw  in  the  breech-block  with  numerous  turns, 
it  may  be  swung  right  into  place,  and  tightly  fastened  with 
one-tenth  of  a  revolution.  The  arrangement  of  the  threads 
in  the  block  is  such  as  to  distribute  the  strain  as  much  as 
possible  The  conical  shape  of  the  block  is  considered  very 
advantageous,  as  allowing  it  to  be  directly  hinged,  whereas, 
if  it  were  cylindrical  in  shape,  it  would  have  to  be  with- 
drawn and  then  swung  open — a  loss  of  one  complete  mo- 


106 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


tion.  The  projectile  is  loaded  from  a  little  hand-barrow, 
and  the  shell  after  firing  is  removed  in  the  same  way — a 
powerful  extractor  loosening  the  shell  so  that  it  can  be  re- 
moved from  the  chamber  with  a  slight  pull.  This  extractor 
consists  of  a  rod  passing  through  one  side  of  the  gun,  and 
fitting  into  the  groove  for  the  rim  of  the  cartridge-case,  in 

FIG.  16. 


m 


ARMSTRONG  GUN. 


such  a  manner  that,  when  it  is  turned  about  its  own  axis, 
the  fitted  part  acts  as  a  lever  or  pry,  and  brings  the  car- 
tridge to  the  rear.  The  extractor  is  brought  back  to  its 
place,  as  the  breech  is  closed,  by  means  of  a  strong  helical 
spring  outside  the  gun.  The  gun  itself  is  of  wrought  iron, 
the  inner  tube  being  of  steel,  iron-bound. 

A  somewhat  similar  gun  is  the  Nordenfelt,  which  is 
made  in  smaller  calibres,  the  one  illustrated  having  a  two- 


RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  GUNS  AND  ARMOR.       107 

and-a-quarter-inch  bore.  It  is  shown  with  a  halt-shield, 
as  arranged  for  naval  use,  being  designed  to  stand  behind 
a  breastwork  a  yard  in  height.  It  is  five  feet  seven  inches 
long,  and  weighs  less  than  five  hundred  pounds,  yet  it  fires 
a  six-pound  shot  with  an  initial  velocity  of  a  quarter  of  a 
mile  a  second,  with  a  fraction  over  half  a  pound  of  smoke- 

FIG.  17. 




NORDENFELT  GUN. 


less  powder.     The  same  gun  is  arranged  to  be  mounted  on 
a  field-carriage  for  land  service. 

Among  other  modern  guns  should  be  mentioned  the 
Canet,  adopted  in  1891  by  Russia,  and  to  some  extent  by 
Chili.  It  has  a  tube  the  length  of  the  piece,  and  is 
strengthened  by  a  jacket  and  hoops.  A  seven-inch  gun 
of  this  make  weighs  five  and  a  half  tons,  and  requires  five 
men  to  operate  it.  A  muzzle  velocity  of  two  thousand 
eight  hundred  and  eighty-seven  feet  has  been  obtained  with 
an  eighty-pound  projectile,  and  six  to  eight  shots  can  be 
fired  in  a  minute. 


108  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

A  very  formidable  weapon  is  the  Hotchkiss  revolving 
cannon,  which  fires  a  nine-inch  cartridge,  six  feet  long,  and 
weighing  eleven  hundred  and  sixty  pounds.  The  cartridge 
is  filled  with  shrapnel,  and  the  rate  of  discharge  is  ninety 
rounds  a  minute,  or  the  equivalent  of  two  thousand  two 
hundred  and  fifty  projectiles.  It  is  mounted  on  a  truck, 
being  designed  to  protect  ditches  and  fortifications.  Only 
two  men  are  required  for  its  operation. 

The  largest  guns  in  actual  use  to-day  are  of  about 
seventeen-inch  calibre,  and  capable  of  discharging  a  two- 
thousand-five-hundred-pound  projectile  with  a  velocity  of 
over  two  thousand  feet  per  second.  They  will  pierce  over 
forty  inches  of  wrought-iron  plate  at  a  short  range,  or  over 
twenty  inches  of  hardened  steel  plate.  They  are  about 
forty  times  as  effective  as  the  two-hundred-pound  Parrott 
gun  of  the  Civil  War.  About  twelve-inch  calibre  guns  are 
generally  preferred  as  heavy  artillery  for  naval  use,  since 
they  are  lighter  and  fire  projectiles  that  are  equally  pene- 
trative. The  range  of  the  best  of  these,  under  favorable 
circumstances,  is  about  twelve  or  thirteen  miles. 

In  recent  war-ships  the  guns  are  mounted  in  citadels,  or 
turrets,  or  barbettes.  A  very  heavy  belt  of  armor  is  placed 
abreast  of  the  engines  and  boilers,  the  thickest  point  being 
at  the  water-line.  The  remainder  of  the  vessel  is  only 
protected  sufficiently  to  guard  the  crew  from  fire  with 
small-arms.  In  what  is  called  the  central-citadel  system, 
that  part  of  the  water-line  abreast  the  engines  and  boilers 
is  armored,  and  a  protective  deck  extends  down  from  the 
citadel.  The  unprotected  hull  is  made  in  compartments, 
so  that  it  is  necessary  to  blow  in  at  least  half  a  dozen  pro- 
jectiles below  the  water-line  before  there  can  be  danger  of 
sinking.  The  inflow  of  water  at  shot-holes  is  reduced  by 
building  the  hull  with  a  double  skin,  the  space  between  the 


RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  GUNS  AND  ARMOR       109 

two  skins  being  filled  with  eellulose,  a  material  that  swells 
with  great  rapidity  when  wet.  This  cellulose  is  usually 
obtained  from  the  husks  of  cocoauuts,  but  a  Philadelphia 
inventor  has  recently  succeeded  in  making  a  better  and 
cheaper  article  of  cornstalks,  and  this  new  cellulose  is  said 
to  be  so  efficient  that  it  will  greatly  reduce  the  danger  of 
sinking  war-ships  with  rapid-fire  guns. 

The  deflective  method  of  armament  is  universally  prac- 
tised, and  consists  in  so  armoring  a  vessel  that  no  flat 
surfaces  are  presented  towards  an  enemy,  the  curved  sur- 
faces giving  the  shots  a  tendency  to  glance.  This  is  very 
effective  on  a  deck,  because  of  the  large  angle  obtainable. 
It  is  obtained  in  turrets  by  giving  them  a  spheroidal  shajx?, 
and  in  casemates  by  convexing  the  fronts.  The  turrets  for 
the  new  United  States  cruiser  "  Iowa"  are  to  be  made  ellip- 
tical instead  of  circular.  The  disadvantage  of  the  circular 
turret  is  that,  owing  to  the  position  and  great  weight  of 
the  guns,  its  centre  of  weight  is  necessarily  nearer  the  front 
than  the  rear.  While  the  ship  is  standing  perfectly  level 
this  makes  but  little  difference,  but,  as  the  vessel  rolls,  the 
turret,  with  its  three  to  four  hundred  tons  weight,  tries  to 
swing  alternately  in  opposite  directions  with  the  roll  of  the 
ship.  In  spite  of  such  tendency,  it  must  be  forced  to  move 
in  a  direction  and  at  a  speed  entirely  independent  of  such 
roll.  This  requires  powerful  mechanism  and  interferes 
with  accurate  aim.  The  elliptical  turret,  which  is  twenty- 
three  by  thirty  feet,  rotates  about  the  centre  of  its  weight, 
instead  of  its  centre  of  form,  so  that  it  can  be  controlled 
by  a  quarter  of  the  power  required  in  the  case  of  a  circular 
turret.  What  is  even  better,  the  accuracy  of  aim  is  in- 
creased, and  the  target  presented  by  the  front  to  the  enemy 
is  reduced  seven  feet.  It  is  also  possible  to  make  the  front 
plate  heavier  with  the  same  total  weight  of  metal. 


110 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


Armor  is  made  of  rolled  iron,  chilled  cast  iron,  forged 
and  tempered  steel,  and  nickel-steel.  Compound  armor  is 
made  of  rolled  iron  and  faced  with  steel.  Wrought-iron 
armor  has  been  made  under  the  steam-hammer  and  by 
rolling,  the  latter  process  being  most  common.  It  has 
been  subject  to  much  experimentation.  Chilled  cast  iron 
has  been  largely  used  in  defending  European  forts.  It  is 

FIG.  18. 


SELLERS'S  ROLLS  FOR  BENDING  SHIP  PLATES. 

cheaper  than  hardened  steel,  and  the  increased  weight 
necessary  to  afford  the  same  protection  is  an  advantage 
rather  than  otherwise.  Compound  plates  have  been  made 
largely  by  the  Wilson  process.  This  consists  in  the  cast- 
ing of  Bessemer  steel  in  an  iron  mould,  the  back  of  the 
mould  adhering  to  the  cast  steel,  so  that  the  two  become 
one,  and  are  rolled  together  to  complete  the  welding.  The 
plate  is  then  bent,  shaped,  tempered,  and  annealed  to  re- 


THE  ONE-HUNDRED-AND-TWENTY-FIVE-TON  HAMMER,  BETHLEHEM  IRON   WORKS. 


RECENT  PROGRESS  IX  GUNS  AXD  ARMOR.      Ill 

move  internal  strains.  Wilson  has  also  employed  a  similar 
process,  in  which  a  series  of  thin  iron  plates,  made  by  the 
ordinary  process  of  rolling,  are  joined  in  a  mould  by  pour- 
ing molten  steel  between  them  and  subjecting  to  further 
rolling  and  shaping,  as  in  the  first-described  process.  The 
Kills  system  of  making  compound  plates  consists  in  taking 
an  iron  and  a  steel  plate,  and  joining  them  by  putting 
through  or  partly  through  stout  pins  of  about  two  and  a 
half  inches  diameter.  The  plates  are  then  heated  quite 
hot,  and  molten  steel  poured  in  the  crack,  after  which  the 
whole  is  placed  in  a  powerful  hydraulic  press  and  reduced 
in  thickness  to  complete  the  union.  It  is  then  bent,  planed, 
tempered,  and  annealed  as  in  the  Wilson  process. 

In  making  forged  steel  armor  at  the  Bethlehem  Iron 
Works,  South  Bethlehem,  Pennsylvania,  immense  ingots 
of  steel  are  first  cast,  then  conveyed  when  nearly  cool  to 
reheating  furnaces  previous  to  being  pounded  by  the  onc- 
hundred-and-twenty-h'vc-ton  hammer.  A  seventy-five-ton 
ingot  requires  about  nine  heatings  before  it  is  properly 
condensed  by  hammering.  It  is  then  ready  to  be  bent  and 
planed  into  shape,  after  which  it  is  annealed  and  the  face 
tempered  in  oil.  Nickel  steel  armor  is  made  in  the  same 
way,  about  three  and  a  quarter  ]>cr  cent,  of  nickel  Ix'ing 
used  in  the  alloy  of  which  the  ingot  is  cast.  This  gives  the 
steel  slightly  more  resistance  than  it  has  without  the  nickel. 

Harveyizing  is  a  process  of  surface  hardening  which  has 
been  introduced  within  a  few  years  to  increase  the  resist- 
ance of  armor-plates.  It  is  used  both  for  steel  and  steel- 
nickel  plates,  and  consists  in  carbonizing  the  face  in  a 
manner  somewhat  similar  to  the  cementation  process  of 
making  steel.  This  face-hardening  grades  off  towards  the 
interior  of  the  plate,  which  is  not  increased  in  brittleness, 
as  would  be  the  case  if  the  whole  thickness  were  hardened. 

10 


112  WONDERS   OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

The  Whitworth  armor  is  made  in  plates  about  an  inch 
thick,  arranged  in  scale-fashion,  with  the  hardest  plate 
outside.  These  are  bolted  together,  and,  being  made  in 
small  pieces,  a  shot  does  not  damage  so  large  a  section  as 
is  sometimes  the  case  with  large  plates,  which  develop  great 
cracks  under  severe  bombardment.  In  all  systems  of  man- 
ufacture it  is  customary  to  bend  the  plates  to  form,  while 
hot,  in  enormous  hydraulic  presses,  or  to  shape  them  with 
the  steam-hammer.  They  are  next  trimmed  up  by  special 
planing;-  and  sawing-machines.  Large  plates  are  usually 
fastened  to  the  ship  by  bolts  of  two  to  three  inches  diam- 
eter screwed  part  way  into  the  plate.  One  plate  of  each 
group  made  is  selected  by  the  government  to  be  tested,  by 
firing  into  it  at  short  range,  and  discovering  just  what 
it  will  bear.  In  a  recent  important  test  by  the  United 
States  government  of  plates  made  by  several  competing 
firms,  a  series  of  ten-and-a  half-inch  nickel  steel  plates  were 
bombarded  with  six-inch  guns  at  a  distance  of  only  fifty- 
seven  feet  from  the  muzzle.  Most  of  the  plates  began  to 
crack  about  the  fifth  shot,  and  were  severely  cracked  after 
fifteen  shots. 

There  exists  a  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the  value  of 
all  steel  (or  nickel-steel)  versus  compound  plates.  The 
Italian  government  has  declared  in  favor  of  all  steel,  the 
French  use  both  sorts,  the  United  States  uses  steel,  Ger- 
many and  Russia  use  compound,  while  Spain  and  Chili 
cling  to  steel.  Since  the  introduction  of  Harveyizing  the 
tendency  appears  to  be  towards  the  all-steel  plates.  The 
same  is  true  of  projectiles.  These  are  commonly  made  of 
chilled  cast  iron,  because  of  its  cheapness,  but  the  steel 
projectiles  have  considerably  more  penetration.  The  heads 
of  projectiles  are  made  in  all  forms,  the  flat  head  being 
preferable  if  deflective  armor  is  to  be  attacked,  and 


RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  GUNS  AND  ARMOR.       113 

some  pointed  form  if  a  flat  opposing  surface  is  to  be 
battered. 

There  has  existed  a  long-time  struggle  between  guns  and 
armor  for  supremacy.  At  present  the  armor  seems  to  have 
the  best  of  it  on  shore,  and  the  guns  at  sea.  In  recent 
wars  vessels  have  been  very  shy  of  approaching  land- 
batteries.  Even  as  far  back  as  the  Franco-Prussian  War, 
though  each  nation  possessed  an  efficient  fleet,  no  attempts 
were  made  to  assault  each  other's  harbors.  In  contests 
between  naval  vessels  it  lias  been  demonstrated  that  accu- 
rate fire  will  damage  a  vessel  to  the  jx>int  of  annihilation. 
Battle-ships  are  by  no  means  invulnerable,  and  a  reaction 
exists  in  favor  of  light-armored  cruisers  that  can  win  by 
their  speed  more  than  they  lose  by  not  loading  themselves 
with  a  heavy  armament.  If  they  encounter  a  vessel  with 
guns  of  greater  range  than  their  own  they  can  run  away. 
So  the  value  of  the  heaviest  battle-ships  is  nullified,  since 
they  cannot  fight  shore-batteries  on  even  terms  and  light 
cruisers  will  not  lie  around  to  be  whipped.  If  this  opinion 
is  correct,  Great  Britain  is  destined  to  lose  something  of 
her  supremacy,  for  her  vast  navy  is  largely  made  up  of 
vessels  of  the  heavy  class.  The  present  year  ten  first-class 
battle-ships  are  being  added  to  the  queen's  navy,  the 
largest  one  costing  nine  hundred  and  eighty-three  thousand 
pounds,  which  shows  that  the  British  are  not  yet  convinced 
that  the  day  of  floating  batteries  has  gone  by.  The  de- 
mand for  fast  cruisers  is  also  recognized,  however,  and  ten 
of  them  are  under  contract,  with  guaranteed  speeds  of 
eighteen  and  nineteen  knots.  Twenty  torpedo-boat  de- 
stroyers are  also  to  be  built,  and  the  rumor  is  that  they  are 
each  to  have  a  speed  of  thirty  knots  an  hour. 

Meantime,  Uncle  Sam,  who  does  not  aim  to  rule  the 
seas,  but  simply  to  be  safe  at  home,  is  perfecting  a  system 


114  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

of  harbor  defence  that  would  seem  to  be  impregnable.  At 
the  entrance  to  New  York  bay,  on  Sandy  Hook,  are  earth- 
works, shielding  disappearing  guns,  and  others  are  projected 
on  Coney  Island  and  vicinity.  Across  Romer  Shoal  it  is 
proposed  to  erect  four  steel  turrets,  set  on  steel  piling  in 
the  most  substantial  manner,  and  protected  from  the  cor- 
roding action  of  the  water  by  masonry.  The  magazines, 
machinery,  and  quarters  for  the  men  will  be  located  under 
water,  safe  behind  a  bank  of  sand.  The  turrets  will  be 
circular  and  revolving,  and,  being  on  land,  they  can  be 
protected  with  any  desired  thickness  of  steel  plates  that  is 
thought  necessary.  Each  turret  will  carry  two  guns  of 
the  largest  calibre,  and  a  number  of  rapid-fire  six-inch  and 
eight-inch  guns  will  also  be  provided.  The  situation  of 
these  turrets  is  such  that  the  guns  will  sweep  all  ap- 
proaches to  New  York,  and  it  is  not  thought  that  any 
hostile  fleet  would  ever  undertake  to  come  within  their 
range  in  daylight,  as  the  aim  from  a  land-battery  is  much 
surer  than  from  a  vessel,  and  the  fleet  would  stand  little 
chance  of  getting  away  uninjured.  The  battery  at  Sandy 
Hook  is  provided  with  ten-  and  twelve- inch  steel  rifles,  a 
number  of  twelve-inch  steel  mortars,  and  some  pneumatic 
dynamite  guns.  The  proposed  batteries  at  Coney  Island 
and  along  the  Jamaica  shore  will  no  doubt  be  similarly  or 
better  armed.  All  these  weapons  will  be  under  or  back 
of  bomb-proof  shelters,  and  will  pop  up  to  send  their 
deadly  missiles  and  disappear  before  an  enemy  can  train  a 
gun  on  the  spot. 

Recent  inventions  render  it  a  matter  of  doubt  whether 
there  is  such  a  thing  as  a  bomb-proof  shelter,  for  the  latest 
improvement  in  dynamite  guns  seems  capable  of  blowing 
up  any  structure  of  man's  manufacture.  The  original 
dynamite  gun,  invented  by  Lieutenant  Zalinski,  is  more 


RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  GUNS  AND  ARMOR.       115 

properly  called  the  pneumatic  gun,  since  it  makes  use  of 
compressed  air  to  discharge  the  projectile  of  explosive  ma- 
terial. It  consists  essentially  of  a  tube,  forty  to  sixty  feet 
long,  not  very  heavily  made,  and  supported  by  a  truss  to 
insure  it  against  warping  out  of  a  true  line  because  of  its 
weight.  Below  its  carriage  is  a  chamber  for  compressed 
air,  which  is  stored  at  a  pressure  of  four  thousand  pounds, 
and  used  at  an  effective  pressure  of  two  thousand  jx>uiids. 

FIG.  19. 


THE  NEW  DYNAMITE  GUN. 


The  most  difficult  part  of  the  invention  was  the  construc- 
tion of  proper  valves  for  admitting  the  compressed  air 
with  such  rapidity  that  the  pressure  could  be  increased  as 
the  projectile  came  near  the  end  of  the  long  tube.  By 
using  a  low  pressure  at  the  start  and  increasing  it  as  the 
projectile  left  the  tube  it  was  possible  to  get  more  force, 
and  to  send  the  projectile  a  greater  distance  than  could  l>e 
done  in  any  other  way.  It  is  impossible  to  use  great  initial 
pressure  on  a  projectile  containing  dynamite  or  other  high 
explosive,  because  the  shock  will  explode  the  projectile  in 
h  10* 


116  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

the  gun,  whereas  the  object  sought  is  to  have  it  explode 
where  it  falls,  after  being  hurled  with  all  the  cushioned  force 
that  it  is  safe  to  use.  The  range  of  the  pneumatic  gun  is 
about  two  and  a  half  miles,  and  the  public  has  been  in- 
formed that  this  could  probably  be  increased  to  four  or  five 
miles ;  but  as  there  are  rifled  guns  that  could  stand  off  at 
a  distance  of  ten  miles  and  knock  the  pneumatic  dynamite 
gun  to  pieces,  its  value  as  a  military  weapon  has  been  sub- 
ject to  much  discount.  It  is  at  this  point  that  the  recent 
improvement  comes  in.  Hudson  Maxim,  brother  of  Hiram 
S.  Maxim,  inventor  of  the  flying-machine  that  flew,  and 
Dr.  Schupphaus,  the  gunpowder  expert,  have  been  putting 
their  heads  together,  with  the  result  that  within  a  few 
months  they  have  taken  out  patents  in  all  civilized  coun- 
tries on  what  they  call  "the  Maxim-Schupphaus  system 
of  throwing  aerial  torpedoes  from  guns  by  means  of  a 
special  powder,  which  starts  the  projectile  with  a  low 
pressure  and  increases  its  velocity  by  keeping  the  press- 
ures well  up  throughout  the  whole  length  of  the  gun." 
In  other  words,  they  have  discovered  a  method  of  dis- 
charging a  dynamite  projectile  with  a  powder  gun  instead 
of  a  pneumatic  gun.  They  are  able  to  do  this  because 
they  have  devised  a  powder  that  will  give  out  its  gas 
gradually,  if  we  may  apply  the  word  to  a  process  that 
takes  place  within  an  infinitely  small  fraction  of  a  second. 
It  should  be  understood  that  high  explosives  for  cannon 
are  now  put  up,  not  in  the  form  of  powder,  but  of  cylin- 
drical rods  or  sticks,  sometimes  half  an  inch  or  more  in 
thickness,  usually  tied  up  in  a  bundle.  The  Maxim- 
Schupphaus  invention  consists  in  manufacturing  these 
explosive  sticks  with  small  holes,  that  perforate  them 
lengthwise,  and  are  capable  of  giving  out  the  gases  at  the 
forward  end  while  the  whole  is  burning.  In  practice  the 


RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  GUNS  AND  ARMOR.       117 

rods  are  ignited  simultaneously  at  both  ends,  along  their 
outer  circumference,  and  through  these  little  holes  or  per- 
forations, so  that  by  the  time  the  projectile  has  reached  the 
end  of  the  long  tube  the  pressure  behind  it  is  sixteen  times 
as  great  as  it  was  at  the  starting-point.  This  acceleration 
of  speed  makes  it  possible  to  start  with  an  initial  shock 
so  mild  that  a  highly  explosive  projectile  may  be  fired 
instead  of  a  steel  shot,  with  a  possibility  of  destruction 
that  is  terrible  to  contemplate.  The  effective  range  is 
said  to  be  ten  miles,  or  almost  equal  to  that  of  guns  firing 
the  solid  shot.  When  one  of  these  torpedo  projectiles  from 
the  new  gun  strikes  an  object  it  will  not  simply  shatter  it, 
but  obliterate  it  from  the  face  of  the  earth — or  the  sea. 
The  inventors  make  use  of  an  explosive  that  has  been 
christened  Maximite,  which  owes  its  force  principally  to 
nitro-glycerin,  but  has  been  rendered  safer  to  handle,  in 
order  that  it  may  withstand  the  first  shock  of  firing  in  the 
new  gun.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  this  new  gun  is  not  yet 
finished,  but  it  is  an  assured  success,  since  the  principle 
has  been  tried  with  smaller  guns.  One  of  the  Sandy 
Hook  ten-inch  rifled  guns  fired  a  shot  eight  miles  with  the 
new  powder,  which  exhibited  what  the  experts  term  a  more 
uniform  pressure  than  any  before  recorded,  with  the  result 
of  securing  greater  accuracy  of  aim,  or  rather  delivery. 
The  inventors  have  fired  their  explosive  projectile  from  a 
four-inch  gun,  with  the  result  of  annihilating  a  sand-bank. 
The  big  weapon  they  are  now  building  is  to  be  a  twenty- 
inch  gun,  especially  designed  for  coast-defence.  It  has  a 
single  steel  tube  thirty  feet  long,  with  walls  only  two  inches 
thick,  so  that  it  will  be  a  light  weight,  like  the  pneumatic 
gun.  The  recoil  is  to  be  taken  up  by  buffers  sinking  back 
into  an  hydraulic  chamber  filled  with  water  and  oil.  When 
the  gun  is  fired,  some  of  the  water  and  oil  will  be  displaced 


118  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

and  forced  into  side  chambers.  These  side  chambers  are 
thus  charged  with  a  power  that  may  be  used  to  manipulate 
the  gun,  as  for  erecting  it  on  disappearing-levers.  The 
gun  is  so  light  and  simple  in  its  construction  that  it  will 
be  much  cheaper  to  build  than  any  other  large  gun. 

If  a  few  of  these  guns  are  placed  at  Romer  Shoals,  no 
hostile  vessel  would  dare  to  approach  within  range,  for  if 
one  of  the  projectiles  dropped  within  fifty  feet  of  the  biggest 
battle-ship  it  would  shatter  and  sink  the  whole  structure. 
Even  at  a  distance  of  a  hundred  and  fifty  feet  the  shock 
of  explosion  would  be  so  great  when  the  Maximite  struck 
the  adjacent  water  that  the  heaviest  steel-clad  boat  would 
be  rendered  unfit  for  further  service.  A  naval  battle  under 
such  circumstances  would  become  a  grand  chasing  act,  the 
hostile  fleets  endeavoring  to  deliver  a  shot  that  would  reach 
and  to  get  away  before  being  hit  in  return. 

The  gunners  who  would  defend  a  harbor  with  the  latest 
improved  mechanisms  would  be  entirely  ignorant  at  the 
time  of  what  they  shot  at,  whether  they  hit  anything,  or 
what  were  the  circumstances  of  the  battle.  They  would 
simply  take  their  orders  from  the  man  with  the  position- 
finder,  and  blaze  away  blindly.  This  position-finder  is 
the  invention  of  Lieutenant  Bradley  A.  Fiske,  and  is  an 
apparatus  designed  to  locate  exactly  the  position  and  dis- 
tance of  any  object  within  range  and  convey  the  informa- 
tion electrically  to  the  gunners,  so  that  the  pieces  may  be 
directed  continuously  and  automatically  on  a  moving  ob- 
ject, as  an  enemy's  ship.  The  position- finder  will  convey 
the  information  to  as  many  guns  as  are  connected  with  it, 
and  by  using  several  position-finders  different  groups  of 
guns  may  be  brought  to  bear  on  one  point,  and  other 
groups  on  other  points,  as  desired.  The  plan  is  to  estab- 
lish a  directing  station  on  some  high  point,  from  which 


RECENT  PROGRESS  IN  GUNS  AND  ARMOR.      119 

there  is  an  unobstructed  view,  and  which  is  far  enough 
back  to  be  out  of  range.  Here  are  stationed  operators, 
with  two  telescopes  and  a  chart  of  the  harbor,  over  which 
are  electrical  pointers  made  to  vary  according  to  the  point- 
ing of  the  telescopes.  Similar  pointers  beside  the  guns  are 
electrically  connected  on  the  principle  of  the  Wheatstone 
bridge,  with  the  result  that  the  guns  may  be  kept  constantly 
pointed  at  the  object  upon  which  the  telescoj>es  are  trained. 
The  apparatus  is  too  complicated  and  technical  to  allow  of 
a  popular  description,  but  suffice  it  to  say  that  the  guns 
themselves  may  be  used  as  pointers  at  the  receiving  station, 
and  that  the  man  in  charge  of  the  training  (or  side-motion) 
of  the  gun  has  simply  to  watch  one  galvanometer,  while 
the  man  in  charge  of  the  elevation  of  the  gun  watches  an- 
other, and  by  keeping  the  needles  of  their  galvanometers  at 
zero  the  gun  is  sure  to  be  aimed  as  accurately  as  are  the 
telescopes,  and  may  follow  a  moving  ship,  while  loading  is 
going  on,  so  as  to  be  exactly  pointed  at  the  instant  of  dis- 
charge. This  method  of  firing  has  been  tested  at  the 
Sandy  Hook  batteries,  with  the  result  that  ten  consecutive 
shots  all  fell  within  a  space  one  hundred  and  ninety-five 
and  one-third  yards  long  and  eight  and  a  half  yards  wide, 
or  about  the  space  occupied  by  a  large  ocean  steamer.  Of 
course  nothing  that  floats  could  withstand  such  an  assault. 
Shore-batteries  armed  with  the  new  Maxim-Schupphaus 
guns,  and  sunk  behind  sand-bars  where  they  were  out  of 
sight,  would  blow  a  hostile  fleet  similarly  armed  out  of  the 
water  before  the  artillerymen  of  the  fleet  had  learned  where 
the  batteries  were  to  fire  at  them. 

The  inevitable  result  of  all  these  remarkably  destructive 
appliances  must  be  the  cessation  of  wars  between  civilized 
nations.  In  fact,  war  is  not  a  civilized  thing.  It  is  a 
relic  of  barbarism  that  the  world  is  just  beginning  to  out- 


120  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

grow.  After  providing  themselves  for  a  few  hundred  years 
with  expensive  and  deadly  armaments  that  involve  destruc- 
tion to  whoever  opposes  them,  the  enlightened  nations  of 
the  world  will  some  day  agree  to  allow  the  whole  lot  to  go 
to  decay  under  mutual  agreement  for  endless  peace. 


SUBMARINE    BOATS. 

Naval  Authorities  of  the  World  mostly  interested  in  or  experi- 
menting with  Electric  Boats  designed  to  carry  Torpedoes  be- 
neath the  Waves. 

EVER  since  the  days  of  Jules  Verne's  "  Twenty  Thou- 
sand Leagues  under  the  Sea"  there  have  been  many  who 
wished  to  see  a  real  boat  capable  of  navigating  below  the 
surface  and  examining  the  wonders  of  the  deep  after  the 
fashion  of  Captain  Nemo,  who  sailed  the  fabled  "  Nauti- 
lus." The  romantic  enterprise  of  such  a  journey,  akin  to 
searching  for  the  North  Pole,  and  involving  experiences 
never  before  tried  by  men,  creates  an  interest  which  is  more 
or  less  common  to  all.  Novelty  is  agreeable  to  most  of  us, 
and  the  desire  for  novelty  has  in  the  past  encouraged  many 
men  to  try  to  navigate  the  air,  and  there  is  no  good  reason 
why  they  should  not  also  strive  to  explore  the  depths  of 
the  waters.  Only  within  a  very  few  years  has  the  latter 
seemed  at  all  possible,  but  recent  attempts  at  submarine 
travel  indicate  that  these  air-tight  boats  may  one  day  be 
able  to  reach  depths  which  are  now  known  only  through 
the  medium  of  the  sounding-line. 

It  is  to  torpedo  warfare  that  we  owe  the  progress  made 
in  submarine  boats.  Naval  powers  desire  boats  that  will 
steal  unawares  upon  the  big  battle-ships  of  an  enemy,  and 


SUBMARINE  BOATS.  121 

deliver  the  deadly  explosives  where  they  will  accomplish 
the  most  certain  destruction,  themselves  remaining  unseen. 
In  1888  this  sentiment  culminated  in  several  attempts  to 
construct  boats  for  this  subaqueous  warfare.  Lieutenant 
Feral,  of  the  Spanish  navy,  designed  one  of  seventy-two 
feet  length,  nine  and  a  half  feet  beam,  and  a  displacement 
of  eighty-six  tons.  Her  form  was  cigar-shaped,  which  is 
a  construction  that  has  been  universally  adopted,  perhaps 
without  wholly  good  reason,  as  has  been  demonstrated  in 
the  case  of  aerial  ships.  This  boat  was  called  the  "  Peral," 
and  was  operated  entirely  by  electricity,  carrying  six  hun- 
dred and  thirteen  Julien  cells  as  a  storage-battery.  She 
was  designed  for  a  speed  of  ten  or  eleven  knots.  Twin 
propellers  were  used,  each  separately  driven  by  its  own 
motor.  The  two  other  propeller-screws  were  used  to  draw 
the  vessel  downward  in  the  water  and  secure  the  required 
submersion.  There  were  large  water  compartments,  which 
could  be  filled  or  emptied  by  pumping,  for  the  purpose  of 
raising  or  lowering  the  vessel,  or  assisting  those  operations. 
The  double  method  of  securing  buoyancy  served  as  a  safe- 
guard against  accident.  A  most  ingenious  mechanism  was 
adopted  for  regulating  the  depth  of  travel  below  the  sur- 
face. It  operated  on  the  principle  of  an  aneroid  barometer, 
the  change  in  pressure  resulting  from  a  change  of  depth 
being  made  use  of  to  regulate  the  action  of  the  immersion- 
screws.  A  curved  tube  of  elliptical  cross-section  was  ex- 
tended from  the  boat  into  the  water,  so  that  it  might  be 
deformed  by  changes  in  pressure,  such  deformation  oper- 
ating a  switch  to  set  the  immersion-screws  revolving  so  as 
to  raise  or  lower  the  craft  as  the  case  required.  A  contact- 
pendulum  operated  somewhat  similarly  to  keep  the  stem  and 
stern  at  corresponding  elevations.  If  the  stem  sank  a  trifle 
the  pendulum  swung  against  the  forward  contact,  establish- 


122  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

ing  a  current  of  electricity  that  adjusted  the  screws  so 
that  the  boat  was  righted. 

The  first  practical  attempt  in  England  was  made  in  the 
same  year  (1888)  by  J.  F.  Waddington.  His  boat  is 
smaller  than  the  "  Feral,"  being  designed  to  be  carried  on 
the  davits  of  a  large  naval  vessel  for  use  in  emergencies. 
The  length  is  thirty-seven  feet,  and  the  circular  section 
amidships  six  feet  in  diameter.  A  little  tower  on  top  en- 
ables the  steersman  to  look  around  when  skimming  just 
below  the  surface.  There  are  two  compressed-air  compart- 
ments designed  to  refresh  the  air  when  requisite,  and  pro- 
vision is  made  to  allow  the  foul  air  to  escape  whenever  the 
pressure  is  greater  inside  than  outside.  The  electrical 
motor  develops  eight  electrical  horse-power  and  drives  the 
propeller  at  a  speed  of  seven  hundred  and  fifty  revolutions 
per  minute.  Forty-five  large  accumulator-cells  are  used, 
and  the  speed  developed  is  about  twelve  miles  an  hour, 
while  at  a  slow  speed  a  travel  of  one  hundred  and  fifty 
miles  can  be  made  before  it  is  necessary  to  recharge  the 
batteries.  Water-tanks  are  used,  into  which  a  flow  is  ad- 
mitted to  sink  the  vessel,  and  pumped  out  again  to  assist 
its  rise.  A  weight  is  also  hung  to  the  bottom,  so  that  it 
may  be  detached  in  case  of  accidental  difficulty  in  reach- 
ing the  surface.  Side  planes  are  made  use  of  to  guide  the 
vessel  on  an  upward  or  downward  inclination,  assisted  by 
the  force  of  the  propeller-screw.  There  are  also  vertical 
propellers,  mounted  in  large  tubes  passing  vertically 
through  the  vessel,  which  may  be  used  to  assist  the  raising 
or  depression  of  the  craft.  Four  rudders  are  employed — 
one  pair  serving  to  guide  the  boat  laterally  and  the  other 
pair  vertically.  The  latter  operate  automatically.  The 
crew  consists  of  only  two  men — one  to  manage  the  motive 
machinery  and  steering  devices,  the  other  to  fire  the  tor- 


SUBMARINE   BOATS. 


123 


pecloes,  of  which  there  are  two  of  the  automobile  type  and 
one  of  the  mine  type.  The  trials  of  this  vessel  are  said  to 
have  been  very  satisfactory. 

France  came  forward  the  same  year  as  Spain  and  Eng- 
land with  an  electrical  submarine  boat  designed  by  M. 
Gustave  Zede,  of  the  Mediterranean  Engineer  Corps,  with 
the  assistance  and  advice  of  Captain  Krebbs  and  Engineer 
Romazzotti.  Strange  to  say,  though  all  three  of  the  ves- 
sels described  were  built  in  a  single  year  in  different  coun- 
tries, by  men  who  could  scarcely  have  had  any  communi- 
cation with  each  other,  yet  the  general  principles  of  these 
boats  are  the  same.  The  illustration  shows  the  "  Gymuote," 

FIG.  20. 


THE   "GYMNOTE." 

as  M.  ZeclS's  craft  is  named,  in  the  act  of  diving.  She  is 
fifty-nine  feet  long,  six  feet  in  diameter,  and  has  an  outer 
skin  made  of  riveted  steel  plates  two  and  a  half  by  three 
feet  in  size.  The  propeller  H  has  four  blades,  and  a  diam- 
eter of  four  feet  ten  inches,  and  is  directly  connected  with 
the  motor  M.  An  outlook  for  the  steersman  is  provided 
at  T,  and  he  operates  the  steering-gear  connecting  with  the 
rudders  G,  G.  The  accumulators,  weighing  nearly  six 
tons,  are  stored  at  A,  A.  Man-holes  are  shown  at  O,  O,  O. 
F  11 


124  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

The  motor,  as  well  as  the  rest  of  the  electrical  arrange- 
ments, was  designed  by  Captain  Krebbs,  and  develops 
fifty- five  horse-power,  with  a  weight  of  only  four  thousand 
four  hundred  pounds.  Horizontal  rudders  or  guides,  as- 
sisted by  the  power  of  the  screw,  are  used  to  submerge  the 
boat.  Hydraulic  power  is  used  for  their  operation.  The 
speed  is  ten  knots  an  hour  at  the  surface,  or  five  to  six 
knots  at  a  depth  of  eight  yards,  which  is  as  deep  as  she  is 
designed  to  go.  Incandescent  electric  lights  are  used  for 
illumination.  There  are  water-chambers  and  compressed- 
air  chambers,  as  in  the  previously-described  vessels. 
Though  an  experimental  boat,  the  "  Gymnote"  is  declared 
to  be  a  complete  success,  and  the  French  government  has 
appropriated  about  two  hundred  and  twenty-five  thousand 
dollars  for  a  larger  vessel  of  the  same  design,  properly 
armored  with  torpedoes.  The  "  Gymnote"  has  been  pub- 
licly tried  on  several  occasions,  and  has  always  behaved 
satisfactorily,  diving  and  manoeuvring  entirely  as  desired. 

The  French  government  has  also  built  two  small  sub- 
marine boats — the  "Gouber,"  eighteen  feet  long,  and  a 
torpedo-mine  destroyer  fifteen  feet  in  length.  Each  is 
designed  to  carry  two  men,  and  the  former  carries  an  air- 
supply  capable  of  supplying  the  crew  for  a  period  of 
thirty-three  hours,  which  would  appear  to  be  ample  for 
any  submarine  work. 

Russia  has  also  built  some  submarine  boats,  but,  with 
her  usual  caution,  that  power  declines  to  publish  any 
information  concerning  them. 

A  firm  at  Foce,  Italy,  have  built  a  steel  submarine  boat 
for  examining  the  bottom  of  the  Mediterranean  in  search 
for  treasure,  and  probably  also  for  the  amusement  of  those 
concerned.  She. is  twenty- eight  feet  long,  seven  feet  beam, 
and  eleven  and  a  half  feet  high  at  the  centre — a  form  not 


SUBMARINE    BOATS.  125 

common  to  other  designs.  Electricity  is  the  motive -power, 
and  a  screw-propeller  utilizes  the  same.  She  is  so  arranged 
in  compartments  that  divers  can  crawl  out  of  her,  when 
resting  on  the  bottom  three  hundred  feet  below  the  surface, 
and  examine  wrecks,  chase  for  pearl  oysters,  etc.  None  of 
the  other  boats  have  attained  any  such  depth  as  this  little 
vessel,  which  seems  to  come  nearer  real i /ing  the  dream  of 
Jules  Verne  than  any  of  the  tor pedo- boats. 

The  best-known  submarine  boat  which  has  been  con- 
structed in  the  United  States  is  that  built  by  George  C. 
Baker,  of  Chicago,  which  was  tried  on  Lake  Michigan  in 
May,  1892,  and  at  a  later  date.  This  boat,  which  has 
been  often  described  in  the  newspapers,  is  radically  differ- 
ent from  the  foreign  craft  of  the  same  class.  The  shell  is 
made  of  oak  six  inches  thick,  to  form  which  planks  of 
proper  curve,  three  inches  thick,  were  spiked  together  with 
their  edges  outward.  She  is  forty  feet  long,  eight  feet 
beam,  and  thirteen  feet  high.  She  makes  use  of  storage- 
battery  cells,  an  electric  motor  that  may  serve  as  a 
dynamo,  and  a  steam-engine.  In  practice,  the  design  is  to 
come  to  the  surface,  get  up  steam,  charge  the  batteries  by 
means  of  the  dynamo,  and,  when  sufficient  power  is  thus 
stored,  put  out  the  fires,  use  the  dynamo  as  a  motor,  and  speed 
away  beneath  the  blue  waves.  The  smoke  stack  is  protruded 
through  a  valve  or  withdrawn  at  pleasure.  There  is  a 
little  observation-tower  for  the  pilot's  head,  its  sides  being 
fitted  with  plate-glass  panes.  This  conning-tower  also  serves 
as  a  cover  for  the  manhole.  Two  propeller- screws,  each  four- 
bladed  and  two  feet  in  diameter,  are  arranged  to  be  driven 
at  adjustable  angles,  so  that  the  pilot  can  direct  the  boat  to 
right  or  left,  or  up  or  down,  by  a  proper  adjustment.  The 
dynamo-motor  used  is  of  fifty  horse-power  capacity,  and 
is  connected  with  two  hundred  and  thirty-two  Woodward 


126  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

storage-cells.  The  pressure  used  does  not  exceed  two  hun- 
dred volts.  The  shaft  makes  nine  hundred  revolutions  a 
minute,  which  gives  a  speed  of  about  nine  miles  an  hour. 
Two  men  constitute  a  crew,  and  they  have  to  manage  the 
steering  apparatus  that  controls  the  rudder  and  the  wheel 
that  alters  the  angle  of  the  propellers.  The  trials  of  this 
boat  have  been  satisfactory  as  a  whole,  though  minor  details 
have  been  noted  that  might  be  improved.  She  has  attracted 
the  attention  of  the  United  States  navy  as  a  practical  tor- 
pedo-boat, but  as  yet  this  government  has  taken  no  steps 
to  secure  her.  A  few  years  ago  the  navy  advertised  for  a 
submarine  boat,  but  demanded  so  much  of  her  that  no  one 
undertook  to  supply  the  demand.  Among  the  requirements 
was  a  speed  of  fifteen  knots  for  a  period  of  thirty  hours, 
without  detriment  to  her  power  of  service  under  water. 

A  submarine  boat  named  the  "  Nautilus"  was  tried  in 
New  York  harbor  a  few  years  since,  but  was  not  entirely 
satisfactory.  By  the  advice  of  the  late  Andrew  Campbell, 
the  well-known  maker  of  printing-presses,  her  buoyancy 
apparatus  was  changed  and  four  extensile  cylinders  placed 
in  her  sides  in  such  a  manner  that  by  thrusting  them  out- 
ward the  air-space  was  increased  and  the  boat  rose,  or  by 
withdrawing  them  the  boat  could  be  sunk.  It  would  ap- 
pear that  this  principle  might  be  advantageously  employed 
in  making  a  boat  designed  to  explore  the  ocean  depths.  If 
the  boat  itself  were  made  telescopic,  a  vast  variation  of 
buoyancy  could  be  secured,  and  if  to  this  were  added 
the  use  of  inclined  wings  driving  the  boat  downward  by 
the  force  of  her  propeller,  and  also  a  detachable  weight 
supplied  to  be  thrown  off  when  it  was  desired  to  rise,  it 
might  be  possible  to  attain  a  depth  of  several  hundred  feet, 
and  by  the  aid  of  powerful  search-lights  learn  more  of  the 
unknown  regions  hid  beneath  the  waters  of  the  ocean. 


FLYING    MACHINES.  127 

Inventors,  having  built  principally  for  torpedo  service, 
have  neglected  this  interesting  branch  of  research.  Since 
no  great  speed  is  required  of  a  boat  designed  primarily  for 
diving,  the  form  might  be  changed  from  the  cylindrical  to 
triangular,  which  would  save  something  in  the  cost  of  con- 
struction. By  placing  one  flat  side  of  the  triangle  upward 
an  effect  similar  to  that  of  aeroplanes  might  be  obtained  to 
aid  in  driving  downward.  A  boat  so  designed  might  be 
very  useful  in  inspecting  ocean  cables,  examining  wrecks, 
etc.  The  idea  is  so  attractive  that  some  day  some  one  will 
furnish  the  money  to  carry  it  out. 


FLYING    MACHINES. 

Navigation  of  the  Air  by  means  of  Aeroplanes — Successful  Ex- 
periments of  Hiram  S.  Maxim. 

MACHINES  that  would  fly  have  been  the  ambition  of 
many  inventors,  but  never  could  one  of  them  be  pulled 
off  the  ground  without  a  gas-bag  until  July  31,  1894, 
when  Hiram  S.  Maxim,  inventor  of  the  Maxim  gun, 
turned  loose  his  aeroplane  flyer  in  England,  and  skimmed 
over  some  five  hundred  feet.  For  several  years  past  the 
attention  of  scientific  men  has  been  turned  from  the  bal- 
loon, as  a  means  of  aerial  navigation,  towards  forms  of 
inclined  planes  that  could  be  propelled  through  the  air  and 
lift  themselves  after  the  manner  of  a  boy's  kite.  Professor 
Langley,  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution,  as  well  as  Mr. 
Maxim,  had  demonstrated  by  experiments  that  at  a  speed 
of  thirty-five  miles  an  hour  the  lifting  power  of  air  was 

11* 


128 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


FIG.  21. 


sufficient  to  sustain  a  light  form  of  apparatus  carrying  a 
motor,  fuel,  and  operator. 

Several  experimenters  worked  on  these  lines,  1893  being 
the  year  prolific  of  promising  devices.  Among  these  in- 
ventors was  Professor  George  Wellner,  of  Brunn,  Austria, 

who  exhibited  designs  of 
an  air-ship  of  the  novel 
form  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration. There  are  in- 
terior sail-wheels,  for 
which  he  obtained  a  pat- 
ent in  England  in  May, 
1893.  He  gave  these 
wheels  an  oscillating, 
rotary  motion,  which  he 
expected  to  sustain  the 
machine  in  the  air  at  the 
same  time  that  it  was 
driven  forward.  No  one  has  been  found  to  furnish  the 
money  to  build  one ;  therefore  its  feasibility  remains  in 
doubt. 

In  the  same  year,  Otto  Lilienthal,  as  the  result  of  some 
years'  experimenting,  built  a  wing-like  framework,  and 
practised  soaring  in  the  vicinity  of  Berlin,  in  the  hope  of 
being  able  to  maintain  himself  in  the  air  as  do  the  birds. 
His  wings  were  fifteen  metres  in  area,  and  his  method  was 
to  take  a  run  against  the  wind,  from  a  roof-top  situated  on 
a  hill,  and  jump  into  the  air.  In  this  manner  he  was  able 
to  soar  a  distance  of  about  eight  hundred  feet  on  a  down 
grade  before  reaching  the  ground.  His  experience  was  so 
unique  that  it  would  not  be  surprising  if  it  were  tried  by 
others  as  a  sport,  though  no  man  can  ever  expect  to  develop 
enough  strength  to  fly  in  this  way. 


PROFESSOR  WELLNER'S  AIR-SHIP. 


FLYING    MACHINES. 
FIG.  22. 


129 


LILIENTHAL  S  SOAKING   APPARATUS. 


Lawrence  Hargrave,  of  England,  built  this  same  year  a 
singularly  light  machine  designed  to  imitate  the  flight  of  a 
bird.  It  was  seven  feet  long,  and  consisted  of  a  tube  or 
backbone  on  which  were  mounted  a  pair  of  wings,  yet  the 
weight  was  only  fifty-nine  ounces.  The  backbone  being 
charged  with  compressed  air,  this  mechanical  bird  flew 
away,  covering  a  distance  of  three  hundred  and  fifty  feet 
before  falling.  His  design  was  much  like  that  of  a  Mr. 
Pichancourt,  who  had  previously  made  smaller  mechanical 
birds,  using  twisted  rubber  as  a  motive  power.  These 
birds  flew  sixty-three  feet.  Mr.  Hargrave's  experiments 
led  to  the  conclusion  that  by  using  steam  in  the  backbone 
of  his  bird  it  could  be  made  to  fly  over  five  hundred  yards. 
Mr.  Hargrave  has  also  built  a  seven-pound  steam-engine 
that  developed  two-thirds  of  a  horse-power. 

Between  1890  and  1893,  Horatio  Phillips,  of  England, 
made  extensive  experiments  with  a  rotary  track,  such  as 
Maxim  and  Langley  used  in  their  experiments,  but  his 
track  was  the  largest  and  his  apparatus  the  most  complete 
of  the  three.  He  has  common-sense  theories,  and  it  would 


130  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

not  surprise  those  who  have  observed  his  operations  if 
he  also  made  a  machine  that  would  actually  fly.  His 
machine  weighed  three  hundred  and  thirty  pounds,  its 
aeroplanes  being  arranged  like  the  slats  of  a  Venetian 
blind.  The  slats  were  twenty-two  inches  wide,  with  a 
cross-section  shaped  like  the  curve  of  an  albatross's  wing. 
The  propeller  was  six  feet  in  diameter,  with  eight  feet 
pitch.  It  was  designed  to  make  four  hundred  revolutions 
a  minute.  His  boiler  was  of  phosphor-bronze,  twelve  by 
sixteen  inches,  and  contained  three-quarter-inch  tubes. 

Professor  Langley's  aluminum  aeroplane  is  like  a  great 
bird,  measuring  ten  feet  from  tip  to  tip  of  the  wings.  The 
latter  incline  upward,  and  the  air-ship  is  sustained  much 
like  a  kite,  except  that,  instead  of  depending  on  the  wind, 
there  are  two  small  screw-propellers.  A  light  steam- 
engine  furnishes  the  motive  power.  It  was  recently  tested 
at  Quantico,  Maryland  ;  but  the  aeroplane  was  eccentric  in 
its  motions,  and  requires  further  experimentation  to  perfect 
the  machine. 

As  early  as  1 856,  Mr.  Maxim's  father  had  the  idea  of  a 
flying  machine,  but  at  that  date  no  suitable  motor  could  be 
obtained  to  drive  the  propellers.  In  1858,  Peter  Cooper, 
working  on  independent  lines,  undertook  to  make  a  motor 
for  a  like  purpose,  exploding  chloride  of  nitrogen  in  a 
cylinder,  but,  receiving  a  severe  hurt  in  the  eye  from  a 
little  explosion,  he  concluded  that  it  was  best  to  stop  while 
his  head  remained  on  his  shoulders.  Cooper's  idea,  and 
also  Maxim's  at  that  time,  was  to  lift  the  machine  by  a 
propeller  turning  on  a  vertical  shaft  and  thrusting  down- 
ward. At  first  thought  this  seems  the  only  feasible  way, 
yet  the  problem  was  solved  by  making  propellers  that 
thrust  backward  like  those  of  ocean  steamers,  inclined 
planes,  called  aeroplanes,  being  used  to  sustain  the  weight. 


FLYING    MACHINES. 


131 


Maxim's  experiments  were  made  in  a  large  field,  where  he 
laid  a  railway  track,  his  idea  being  to  run  the  machine 
along  the  track  until  it  acquired  a  sj>eed  of  about  thirty- five 
miles  an  hour,  when  it  ought  to  leave  the  track  and  soar 
upward.  He  met  with  a  great  deal  of  difficulty  in  securing 
a  motor  sufficiently  light.  The  oil-engine  seemed  suitable 
because  of  the  light  weight  of  the  fuel,  but  he  was  unable 
to  build  one  light  enough  to  come  within  the  necessarv 

* 

limits.     Next  he  tried  an  engine  using  naphtha  as  steam  is 

Fro.  23. 


MAXIM'S  FLYING  MACHINE. 

used.  Naphtha  vaporizes  at  such  a  low  temperature  that 
this  seemed  likely  to  succeed.  It  was  a  mechanical  suc- 
cess, but  the  extreme  danger,  resulting  from  the  great 
inflammability  of  the  vapor,  caused  its  abandonment.  At 
last  Mr.  Maxim  came  back  to  the  steam-engine,  and 
sought  to  devise  one  that  might  meet  his  wants.  Here 
the  great  difficulty  was  with  the  boiler.  He  must  avoid 
carrying  a  great  steel  shell  with  a  large  body  of  water. 
He  finally  succeeded  in  building  a  boiler  having  thin 
i 


132  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

copper  water-tubes,  through  which  a  forced  circulation  of 
water  was  kept  up,  and  secured  eight  hundred  feet  of 
heating  surface  with  only  thirty  feet  of  flame  surface.  His 
fuel  is  gasoline,  and,  although  the  boiler  makes  more 
steam  than  the  three  hundred  and  sixty-four  horse-power 
engines  consume,  yet  it  weighs  but  twelve  hundred  pounds, 
including  the  two  hundred  pounds  of  water  it  requires. 
The  gasoline  fuel  is  blown  in  a  generator,  weighing  one 
hundred  pounds,  at  a  pressure  of  fifty  pounds,  making  a 
flame  twenty-two  inches  high. 

The  double-expansion  engines  weigh  six  hundred  pounds, 
or  a  little  less  than  two  pounds  to  the  horse-power,  a  result 
never  attained  before,  if  we  except  LavaPs  steam  turbine. 
They  are  designed  to  use  steam  at  a  pressure  of  over  three 
hundred  pounds.  The  piston-speed  is  seven  hundred  and 
fifty  feet  per  minute,  and  the  stroke  one  foot.  These  engines 
are  made  throughout  of  high-grade  steel,  many  of  the  parts 
being  tempered  to  give  them  greater  strength.  Some  may 
wonder  why  aluminum  was  not  used,  since  that  metal  is  so 
very  light  and  no  longer  of  serious  cost.  The  reason  is 
that,  weight  for  weight,  a  high  grade  of  steel  is  two  to 
three  times  as  stout  as  aluminum,  the  popular  impression 
to  the  contrary  being  erroneous. 

The  screw-propellers  are  of  seventeen  feet  six  inches 
diameter,  and  have  sixteen  feet  pitch.  Mr.  Maxim  is 
now  satisfied  that  they  should  be  longer.  The  propellers 
are  mounted  side  by  side,  and  the  steering  is  effected  by 
slightly  reducing  the  speed  of  the  engine  and  its  propeller 
on  the  side  towards  which  it  is  desired  to  turn. 

The  next  difficulties  to  be  overcome  were  in  the  con- 
struction of  suitable  aeroplanes.  Experiments  satisfied 
Mr.  Maxim  that  they  should  be  superposed,  and  set  at 
considerable  elevations,  so  as  not  to  interfere  with  each 


FLYING    MACHINES.  133 

other's  supply  of  air.  The  arrangement  finally  decided 
on  is  best  shown  by  the  illustration,  but  it  does  not  show 
their  construction.  Each  aeroplane  consists  of  two  thick- 
nesses of  balloon  cloth,  stretched  on  a  tubular  framework. 
The  lower  sheet  is  slightly  porous,  allowing  some  air  to 
pass  through  against  the  upper  sheet,  which  is  air-tight, 
and  which  in  operation  becomes  corrugated  into  billow- 
like  vibrations.  This  arrangement  was  found  necessary 
because  the  lower  sheet  must  be  kept  flat,  to  be  of  proper 
service  as  a  lifting  plane.  When  made  in  one  thickness 
the  sheet  would  bag  and  flap,  but  the  doubling  of  the  sheet 
allows  all  the  flapping  to  go  into  the  top  sheet,  where  it  is 
of  little  disadvantage.  This  arrangement  is  found  to  be 
nearly  as  efficient  as  if  made  of  solid  wood,  and  of  course 
is  of  less  weight.  These  aeroplanes  were  placed  at  an 
angle  of  one  foot  in  eight,  and  the  whole  framework  was 
well  braced  with  tubes  and  wires  of  the  toughest  steel.  A 
gyroscopic  wheel  was  depended  upon  to  keep  the  machine 
running  in  the  same  plane.  The  total  area  of  lifting  sur- 
face was  four  thousand  square  feet,  the  width  of  the  machine 
being  one  hundred  and  four  feet,  and  the  length  one  hun- 
dred and  twenty-five  feet.  The  weight  of  the  apparatus, 
with  three  men,  is  about  eight  thousand  pounds,  and  its 
lifting  capacity  ten  thousand  pounds. 

The  great  credit  due  Mr.  Maxim  for  his  success  is 
emphasized  when  we  consider  how  many  things  he  had 
to  invent  to  accomplish  his  purpose.  He  had  to  make  a 
boiler  and  engines  lighter  than  any  had  ever  been  made 
before.  He  had  to  invent  aeroplanes  that  would  not  flap, 
and  he  had  to  design  an  arrangement  of  the  whole  combi- 
nation that  would  come  within  the  very  limited  restrictions 
of  weight,  to  go  beyond  which  insured  failure.  He  did  all 
these  things,  and  he  promises  to  do  even  better  in  the  future. 


134 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


On  the  memorable  day  when  this  machine  was  tried — 
July  31,  1894 — it  was  run  over  the  seventeen  hundred 
feet  of  track  to  see  how  much  lifting  power  it  would  exert 
on  the  upper  rails,  for  the  careful  inventor  had  arranged 
both  upper  and  lower  rails,  so  that  when  the  machine  was 
raised  off  the  ground  it  might  not  fly  away  and  get  lost. 

Fia.  24. 


DIAGRAM  OF  MAXIM'S  MACHINE.—?,  P,  propellers ;  S,  S,  shafts ;  p,  p,  pumps ; 
T,  T,  tanks  ;  M,  M,  pipes ;  B,  boiler ;  G,  gasoline  boiler ,  W,  W,  W,  W,  wheels  for 
lower  track  ;  U,  U,  U,  U,  wheels  for  upper  rail. 

On  the  third  trip  the  flying  machine  left  the  lower  track 
after  running  four  hundred  and  fifty  feet,  with  the  steam  at 
two  hundred  and  seventy-five  pounds,  when  it  began  to 
oscillate  against  the  upper  rails.  At  a  distance  of  six  hun- 
dred feet  it  rode  entirely  against  the  upper  rails,  the  steam- 
pressure  being  then  three  hundred  and  ten  pounds.  When 
about  one  thousand  feet  were  covered  the  lifting  pressure 
became  so  great  that  the  rear  rail -wheels  were  bent  out  of 
position  and  tore  up  the  track,  consisting  of  three- by- nine- 
inch  timber  rails,  for  a  distance  of  about  one  hundred  feet, 
resulting  in  the  wrecking  of  the  machine.  Maxim  had  a 
dynograph  attached,  for  recording  the  amount  of  lift  at 
various  distances  run  and  the  amount  of  steam-pressure  at 


FLYING    MACHINES.  135 

the  time.  The  two  previous  runs  over  the  track  gave  him 
actual  experience  as  to  the  lifting  power  of  his  aeroplanes 
under  different  circumstances.  On  a  run  of  seventeen 
hundred  feet,  with  one  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  of  steam, 
a  lift  of  two  thousand  five  hundred  pounds  was  exerted 
during  a  little  over  five  hundred  feet  of  travel.  With  two 
hundred  and  forty  pounds  of  steam,  in  a  run  of  seventeen 
hundred  feet,  the  two-thousand-fivc-hundred-pound  lifting 
point  was  passed  after  making  only  three  hundred  and  fifty 
feet  of  run,  and  four  thousand  five  hundred  i>ounds  lift 
was  attained  after  running  nine  hundred  feet,  and  main- 
tained for  fully  six  hundred  feet.  On  the  last  run,  when 
the  steam  went  up  to  three  hundred  and  ten  pounds,  the 
dynograph  recorded  an  amazing  rise,  the  lifting  power  at 
each  one  hundred  feet  of  that  trip  increasing  as  follows : 
700, 1700, 3000,  3700, 3950, 5750, 6600, 6450,  6500, 8700. 
From  this  record  it  is  easy  to  see  that  a  steam-pressure  of 
three  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  would  have  given  a  speed, 
in  a  run  of  one  thousand  feet,  sufficient  to  cause  a  lifting 
effort  of  ten  thousand  pounds.  When  we  reflect  how  little 
headway  a  railway  train  can  make  in  a  thousand  feet,  this 
result  is  little  short  of  marvellous.  As  Mr.  Maxim's  en- 
gines and  boiler  are  capable  of  being  run  at  four  hundred 
pounds  pressure,  even  more  astonishing  results  may  be  ex- 
pected. Since  nobody  was  hurt  in  the  final  break-down, 
and  as  the  machine  has  demonstrated  that  it  can  fly,  the 
achievement  has  passed  into  history  as  most  remarkable, 
and  the  public  await  with  interest  the  next  attempt  of  this 
now  famous  inventor.  He  has  built  a  machine  that  can 
lift  itself  clear  of  the  ground,  with  two  thousand  pounds 
pull  to  spare.  Will  he  be  able  to  guide  it  safely  through 
the  air  and  alight  without  danger?  These  are  difficult 
problems,  yet  not  so  difficult  as  those  which  he  has  already 

12 


136  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

overcome.  His  next  machine  will  have  the  advantage  of 
propellers  twenty-two  feet  in  diameter,  engines  of  larger 
stroke,  and  aeroplanes  set  at  a  less  angle.  In  other 
respects  the  design  of  the  wrecked  machine  will  be  fol- 
lowed. 

Mr.  Maxim  is  of  the  opinion  that  flying  machines  will 
never  be  of  much  utility  except  in  war.  As  freight- 
carriers  he  does  not  think  that  they  will  ever  compete 
with  surface  lines.  Probably  he  is  correct.  Yet  the  gen- 
eral introduction  of  flying  machines  would  be  no  greater 
marvel  in  these  days  of  progress  than  was  the  locomotive 
a  few  years  ago.  Nobody  expected  such  a  development  of 
railroad  travel  as  followed,  and  while  nobody  of  to-day 
looks  for  aerial  travel  to  become  as  common  as  railroading, 
it  is  among  the  possibilties  of  the  future. 


HORSELESS   VEHICLES. 

Electric  and  Gasoline  Carriages  and  Bicycles  coming  into  Use, 
and  likely  to  bring  about  the  Disuse  of  the  Horse  for  driving. 

THE  horse  is  doomed.  The  noble  animal  has  withstood 
the  inroads  of  the  steam-railways,  and  seen  the  bicycle  and 
the  trolley  usurp  fields  of  usefulness  in  which  he  once 
reigned  supreme,  but  he  cannot  remain  in  the  face  of  the 
automobile  carriage  for  pleasure  and  business  purposes, 
and  his  sphere  henceforth  will  be  purely  that  of  a  trotter, 
reared  for  speed  and  sport,  but  not  for  usefulness.  Such 
is  the  conclusion  arrived  at  after  a  study  of  the  progress 
made  in  this  form  of  vehicles,  and  a  knowledge  that  man- 
ufacturers are  already  in  the  field  prepared  to  flood  the 
country  with  all  sorts  and  shapes  and  sizes  of  horseless 


HORSELESS    VEHICLES.  137 

vehicles.  The  only  drawback  at  present  to  their  general 
use  is  the  lack  of  good  roads,  but  the  public  everywhere  is 
awake  to  the  necessity  of  bettering  the  roads,  and  within  a 
few  years  the  United  States  will  make  as  good  a  showing  in 
this  respect  as  any  of  the  old  countries  of  the  globe.  The 
bicycle  is  so  universally  used  by  young  and  old  that  all 
have  learned  more  or  less  of  the  desirability  and  necessity 
of  good  roads  for  wheeling,  and  such  roads  are  coming  as 
fast  as  they  can  l>e  built. 

The  bicycle  has  done  another  thing  towards  opening  the 
way  for  automobile  carriages.  It  has  taught  mechanics 
how  to  construct  vehicles  of  great  strength  and  extreme 
lightness,  and  how  to  make  them  easy-riding.  When 
horses  did  all  the  pulling,  men  did  not  care  much  whether 
the  animal  had  to  exert  his  strength  to  draw  a  hundred  or 
two  pounds  extra  because  a  vehicle  was  not  made  as  fric- 
tionless  as  it  might  be.  But  just  as  soon  as  men  and 
women  came  to  furnish  the  propelling  power,  they  found 
out  that  a  multitude  of  minor  devices  could  be  introduced 
to  lighten  the  labor  and  increase  the  speed.  So  we  now 
have  pneumatic  tires,  ball-bearings,  and  tempered  tubular 
steel  frames,  to  lessen  the  work  and  increase  the  pleasure 
of  the  rider.  It  is  just  these  things  that  are  desirable  in 
a  carriage  propelled  by  a  small  self-contained  motor,  and 
which  make  it  possible  to  build  them  of  moderate  weight 
and  with  fairly  large  carrying  capacity. 

As  long  ago  as  1889  a  good  road- vehicle  propelled  by 
steam  was  in  use  in  France.  M.  Serpollet,  the  inventor 
of  a  steam-tricycle,  and  M.  Archdeacon,  an  aeronaut,  made 
a  trip  in  one  from  Paris  to  Lyons  in  that  year,  nine  days 
being  spent  en  route.  As  they  met  with  some  accidents, 
and  stopped  in  all  the  large  towns,  this  must  not  be  taken 
as  a  measure  of  the  speed  attained. 


138  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

One  firm  of  American  bicycle  manufacturers  is  now 
arranging  to  put  on  the  market  a  bicycle  carriage  arranged 
to  be  propelled  by  two  sets  of  treadles  and  to  carry  passen- 
gers. No  doubt  it  will  have  a  sale,  though  the  greatest 
success  is  anticipated  for  those  vehicles  that  carry  a  motive 
power,  as  an  electric  accumulator  or  gasoline  engine.  Mr. 
Thomas  C.  Martin,  a  New  York  electrical  engineer,  ex- 
pects to  see  such  vehicles  hitch  on  to  the  trolley  in  the 
near  future.  He  says,  in  a  recent  interview  with  a  writer 
for  Munsey's  Magazine : 

"  It  is  not  impossible  that  in  the  near  future  we  shall 
have  power-wires  strung  along  our  roads,  to  which  any 
one  can  hitch  his  electric  carriage,  to  drive  it  in  either 
direction  for  business  or  pleasure.  To  facilitate  this  there 
should  be  switches  and  turnouts,  of  course.  If  the  i  two- 
decker'  streets,  which  all  our  big  cities  must  eventually 
adopt,  are  established,  the  power- wires  for  electrical  car- 
riages and  carts  will  probably  be  relegated  beneath  the 
surface  roads.  How  soon  may  this  system  be  established  ? 
Already  all  the  new  buildings  go  down  three  or  four  stories 
below  the  normal  street  level ;  and  there  seems  to  be  no 
good  reason  why  traffic  should  not  be  stratified  in  the  same 
manner,  with  the  help  of  electric  power.  Electricity,  or, 
for  that  matter,  any  agency  that  will  drive  the  horse  from 
the  streets  of  our  great  cities,  should  be  welcomed,  for 
horses  are  the  cause  of  much  disease  and  unsanitary  con- 
ditions. There  are  laws  preventing  citizens  from  keeping 
certain  domestic  animals  within  the  city  limits.  I  believe 
the  advance  in  electricity  will  soon  add  the  horse  to  the 
prohibited  list,  along  with  pigs  and  cows." 

The  opinion  is  not  by  any  means  extravagant.  It  is  the 
deliberate  judgment  of  a  man  who  has  given  a  great  deal 
of  attention  to  the  future  progress  of  electricity  and  me- 


HORSELESS    VEHICLES.  139 

chanics  generally.  Engineers  will  endorse  the  view,  though 
opinions  will  differ  as  to  the  motive  powers  likely  to  be  em- 
ploved.  In  a  machine  which  is  made  in  Springfield,  Massa- 
chusetts, a  gasoline  engine  is  used,  hid  away  under  the  seat. 
This  engine  is  an  admirable  one,  and  constitutes  the  valu- 
able feature  of  this  invention.  Jt  only  weighs  one  hundred 
and  twenty  pounds,  although  it  has  double  cylinders.  The 
gasoline  used  is  vaporized,  a  few  drops  at  a  time,  and  ig- 
nited by  an  electric  spark,  causing  a  sudden  expansion 
(in  the  nature  of  an  explosion  under  control)  that  drives 
the  piston,  after  the  manner  of  a  gas-engine.  Forty  cents' 
worth  of  gasoline  is  claimed  by  the  makers  as  sufficient  to 
carry  the  vehicle  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles  over  good 
roads  with  a  light  load.  The  gearing  is  regulated  for 
speeds  of  three,  six,  ten,  and  (it  is  claimed)  sixteen  miles 
an  hour.  This  gearing  is  of  the  tyj>e  used  in  trolley-cars 
to  lessen  noise,  being  made  of  alternate  layers  of  rawhide 
and  iron  plates.  Ball-bearings  are  used  throughout,  and 
the  wheels  are  rubber-tired,  or  pneumatic  tires  can  be  added 
at  an  extra  cost.  The  forward  wheels  do  not  turn  in  con- 
nection with  the  axle,  as  do  those  of  most  vehicles,  but  are 
pivoted  in  the  hub,  and  turned  by  connecting-levers  con- 
trolled by  the  driver.  Side- movement  of  the  driver's  lever 
guides  the  carriage  to  the  right  or  left,  and  starting,  stop- 
ping, or  reversing  or  altering  the  speed  are  all  accomplished 
by  vertical  movements  of  the  lever.  A  thumb-button  oper- 
ates a  brake  powerful  enough  to  stop  the  carriage  within  a 
few  feet,  and  another  button  serves  to  put  the  carriage  at 
its  utmost  speed,  as  for  racing.  The  total  weight  of  the 
vehicle  is  six  hundred  pounds,  about  that  of  an  ordinary 
pleasure  carriage  of  the  same  capacity. 

Another  horseless  vehicle  is  the  invention  of  a  Mr. 
Morrison,  of   Des   Moines,   Iowa.     He   uses  a   storage- 

12* 


140 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


battery,  and  claims  a  speed  of  fourteen  miles  an  hour  and 
a  capacity  of  running  one  hundred  and  eighty-two  miles 
before  recharging  the  battery. 

Dr.  H.  C.  Barker  and  J.  E.  Elbing,  of  Kansas  City, 
Missouri,  have  constructed  a  carriage,  using  an  electric 
motor  designed  by  W.  H.  Blood,  Jr.,  of  the  same  place. 
They  use  a  chloride  accumulator  of  twenty-five  cells,  which 
can  be  stored  with  electricity  at  any  electric-light  or  power 
station. 

A.  Schilling  &  Sons,  of  Santa  Maria,  California,  have 
recently  built  a  tricycle  for  three  persons,  operated  by  a 
two-horse  gasoline  engine,  and  carrying  a  twelve  hours* 
supply  of  gasoline  as  fuel. 

FIG.  25. 


HITCHCOCK  QUADRICYCLE. 


The  Hitchcock  Manufacturing  Company,  of  Cortland, 
New  York,  have  placed  a  quadricyle  and  a  bicycle  on  the 
market,  both  of  which  are  operated  by  miniature  motors. 


HORSELESS    VEHICLES.  141 

The  form  of  the  quaclricycle  is  well  shown  in  the  illustra- 
tion. It  has  twenty-two-inch  front  wheels  and  twenty- 
inch  rear  wheels.  Notwithstanding  the  fact  that  the  motor 
develops  five  horse-power,  the  whole  machine  weighs  only 
a  hundred  and  fifty  pounds,  and  makes  very  little  noise. 
The  seat  is  made  wide  enough  lor  two  persons,  and  the 
steering  is  accomplished  by  simply  moving  the  steering- 
bar  to  right  or  left.  The  pneumatic  tires  are  the  thickest 
that  have  been  seen  on  this  side  of  the  Atlantic,  though 
vehicles  are  built  in  London  with  even  larger  diameter 
tire  than  these.  The  four-inch  tires  are  said  to  make 
riding  easy  on  the  roughest  roads.  When  the  weight  is  on 
they  cover  about  sixty  square  inches  of  ground,  giving  a 
surface  that  overcomes  holes,  stones,  mud,  or  sand.  They 
do  not  require  to  be  as  fully  inflated  as  the  small  tires. 
The  seat  is  so  low  that  upsetting  is  out  of  the  question. 
One  gallon  of  naphtha  answers  for  a  trip  of  fifty  miles. 
The  makers  say  that  it  will  go  as  fast  as  any  one  dares  to 
ride.  The  same  form  of  motor  is  used  on  the  Hitchcock 
bicycle,  which  weighs  only  sixty  pounds.  The  little  oil- 
ton  k  is  on  the  top  of  the  frame,  between  the  saddle  and 
the  handles.  It  feeds  a  drop  at  a  time,  down  through  the 
hollow  frames  to  the  cylinders,  one  on  each  side  of  the 
rear  wheel.  Here  the  naphtha  is  mixed  with  enough  air 
to  cause  a  miniature  explosion,  when  lighted  by  an  electric 
spark,  which  gives  the  impulse  to  the  piston.  The  tool- 
bag  carries  the  battery  that  furnishes  the  electric  spark. 
The  motor  is  really  a  double  engine  of  two  horse-power. 
Either  half  can  be  laid  off  and  the  other  will  run  the  cycle, 
yet  the  motive  mechanism  only  weighs  twelve  pounds,  a 
remarkable  lead  over  the  French  automobile  carriages. 
The  speed  of  the  machine  can  be  governed  by  the  amount 
of  oil  let  down,  this  being  regulatable  by  a  finger-rod  on  the 


142  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

handle-bar.  To  start  the  machine  the  rider  uses  the  pedals, 
at  the  same  time  turning  the  switch  that  starts  the  little 
battery  to  working.  In  an  instant  the  power  is  developed, 
and  he  can  coast  away,  leaving  his  feet  on  the  pedals  if  he 
chooses,  as  they  are  set  on  with  a  ratchet  mechanism  so  that 
they  do  not  turn,  but  operate  only  as  the  feet  are  worked 

FIG.  26. 


HITCHCOCK  BICYCLE. 


up  and  down.  The  single  gallon  of  oil  in  the  tank  will 
run  the  machine  under  favorable  conditions  for  a  hundred 
miles.  The  machine  is  suited  to  all  weathers.  When  it 
is  extremely  hot  the  rider  can  cool  himself  in  the  breeze 
created  by  the  motion.  When  it  is  quite  cold,  he  can 
switch  the  exhaust  air,  which  is  hot,  into  the  handle-bars 
and  frame  and  warm  himself.  In  dusty  and  muddy 
weather  the  large  tires  enable  the  machine  to  progress 
more  easily  than  any  other  form  of  vehicle.  An  attach- 
ment for  the  front  wheel,  in  the  shape  of  a  pair  of  adjust- 
able runners,  is  designed  for  use  in  winter,  when  a  sleigh- 
ride  is  desired.  If  bare  ground  is  struck  after  a  time  the 
runners  are  switched  up,  and  the  journey  continued  on 
wheels.  The  frame  is  so  low  that  the  rider  can  place  his 
feet  on  the  ground  in  stopping  or  starting. 


HORSELESS    VEHICLES.  143 

A  tandem  bicycle  is  also  built  on  the  same  principle, 
with  three  seats,  for  lady,  gentleman,  and  child.  If  this 
series  of  vehicles  is  all  that  is  claimed,  there  would  appear 
to  be  nothing  more  to  desire,  as  the  maximum  of  speed 
and  comfort  is  provided  for,  and  the  cost  of  running  is 
but  a  trifle. 

At  the  Columbian  Exposition  in  Chicago  there  were  ex- 
hibited a  number  of  electrically-driven  vehicles,  one  being  a 
three-seated  wagon  capable  of  travelling  sixty  miles.  As  it 
weighed  two  thousand  pounds  it  was  not  considered  prac- 
tical. A  quadricycle  driven  by  gasoline  was  also  on  exhi- 
bition, and  this  was  designed  to  carry  ton  people,  itself 
weighing  a  thousand  pounds,  a  figure  which  ought  to 
insure  its  practicability. 

Morris  &  Salom,  engineers,  of  Philadelphia,  have  built 
an  automobile  carriage  that  is  said  to  operate  to  their  sat- 
isfaction. 

The  Holtzer-Cabot  Electric  Company,  of  Boston,  have 
just  placed  on  the  market  an  electric  carriage,  built  to 
imitate  an  English  drag,  and  accommodating  ten  persons. 
It  is  driven  by  the  chloride  accumulator  form  of  battery. 

For  several  years  past  the  Paris  Petit-Journal  has  con- 
ducted competitions  for  automobile  carriages,  offering 
prizes  to  the  most  successful.  Forty-two  competitors  en- 
tered in  the  race  of  1894,  showing  how  many  concerns 
there  are  interested  in  the  production  and  perfection  of  this 
form  of  vehicle.  The  petroleum-motor  was  the  one  most 
used  by  the  contestants,  and  doubtless  some  form  of  oil- 
engine and  the  storage -battery  will  be  the  competing  forms 
of  motor  in  the  near  future.  When  acetylene  gas  comes 
into  general  use  it  will  no  doubt  contest  with  these  two  for 
the  supremacy.  It  is  likely  to  prove  the  lightest  fuel  to 
carry,  and  will  run  small  steam-engines  to  be  used  on  car- 


144  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

riages.  For  further  information  regarding  this  interesting 
gas  see  the  chapter  on  "  Illuminating  Gas/' 

The  Daimler  motor,  which  was  used  on  the  four  carriages 
whose  builders  divided  the  first  prize  at  the  Paris  competi- 
tion of  1894,  is  a  two-cylinder  gasoline  motor,  whose  axis 
is  placed  parallel  to  that  of  the  vehicle.  Its  rotating  parts 
make  seven  hundred  revolutions  a  minute,  and  are  con- 
nected to  the  rear  wheels  through  friction-gearing  and  a 
train  of  wheels  that  permits  altering  the  speed  in  four 
gradations.  The  driver  effects  these  alterations  readily 
with  a  pedal.  The  brake  which  is  made  to  go  with  this 
motor  operates  upon  the  hub  or  elsewhere,  where  it  will 
not  damage  the  rubber  or  pneumatic  tire  by  being  applied 
suddenly  and  with  force.  The  Daimler  motor  is  to  be 
introduced  in  America  the  present  year  (1895)  for  driving 
pleasure  and  business  vehicles. 

The  carriage  which  arrived  first  at  the  destination  in  the 
Paris  trial  of  1894,  but  which  received  only  second  prize 
because  its  design  failed  to  fulfil  certain  conditions  as  to 
cost,  was  built  by  De  Dion,  Bouton  &  Co.,  and  weighed 
four  thousand  four  hundred  pounds  in  running  order.  It 
was  of  the  traction  locomotive  type,  and  exhibited  a  capacity 
of  travelling  eighteen  miles  an  hour  while"  hauling  two 
thousand  two  hundred  pounds  over  a  level  road.  It  is 
thought  that  the  French  army  will  adopt  it  for  hauling 
light  artillery. 

Most  of  the  vehicles  in  this  Parisian  competition  were 
four-wheeled  carriages  weighing  loaded  over  two  thousand 
pounds.  The  exception  was  an  eight-hundred-pound  steam- 
carriage  arranged  as  a  tricycle,  which  received  honorable 
mention.  No  electrically-propelled  vehicles  were  entered 
in  this  contest,  owing  to  the  conditions  imposed,  by  which 
they  were  practically  ruled  out.  Since  the  contest,  how- 


HORSELESS    VEHICLES.  145 

ever,  a  French  inventor,  M.  Jeantaud,  of  Paris,  who  has 
been  struggling  with  automobile  carriages  off  and  on  for 
eighteen  years,  has  perfected  an  electric  carriage,  run  by 
Fulmen's  accumulators,  which  marks  a  step  of  advance, 
although  it  is  as  heavy  as  the  rim  of  the  French  vehicles 
of  this  type.  Ready  for  travel,  with  two  passengers,  it 
weighs  two  thousand  five  hundred  pounds.  The  motor 
produces  two  and  six-tenths  horse- power  at  an  angular 
velocity  of  twelve  hundred  revolutions  per  minute,  but 
can  be  arranged  to  give  out  over  four  horse-power.  The 
tests  of  this  carriage  showed  that  it  would  travel  eighteen 
miles  in  an  hour  and  a  half  on  a  level  macadamized  road 
before  the  accumulators  required  to  be  recharged.  M. 
Jeantaud  is  not  satisfied  with  this,  and  is  constructing 
another  carriage  with  a  capacity  of  twenty-six  miles  of 
travel  before  being  recharged. 

The  French  competition  of  1895  was  arranged  by  James 
Gordon  Bennett  and  Baron  de  Neufeldt,  with  a  prize  of 
forty  thousand  francs  to  the  four-seated  automobile  vehicle 
making  the  best  time  from  Versailles  to  Bordeaux  and 
return,  a  distance  of  seven  hundred  and  thirty-six  miles. 
Minor  prizes  were  offered  for  other  types  of  vehicles. 
There  were  twenty  starters.  The  fastest  time  was  made 
by  MM.  Panhard  &  Levassor's  two-seated  petroleum  car- 
riage, which  covered  the  distance  in  forty-eight  hours  and 
fifty-three  minutes,  including  all  stoppages.  Les  Fils  de 
Peugeot  Freres'  four-seated  petroleum  carriage  came  in 
next,  in  about  fifty-four  and  a  half  hours,  and  received 
the  first  prize.  All  the  prize-winners  used  petroleum 
motors,  carrying  enough  to  run  them  about  two  hundred 
miles. 

A  gasoline  bicycle  of  French  manufacture  was  recently 
exhibited  in  the  United  States,  attracting  considerable 


146  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

attention.  Its  mechanism  is  best  shown  by  the  accom- 
panying sketch.  .There  are  five  cylinders  arranged  spoke- 
fashion  in  the  rear  wheel,  which  is  the  driver.  A  small 
gasoline  tank  is  mounted  forward  of  the  steering  handles, 
and  is  carried  down  through  the  frame,  as  in  the  Hitch- 
cock machine,  being  ignited  in  the  cylinders  by  an  electric 

FIG.  27. 


A.  FRENCH  MOTOR  BICYCLE. 


spark  at  the  rider's  feet.  Just  how  the  gasoline  gets  to 
the  cylinders,  which  are  rotating  with  the  wheel,  or  how 
they  act  on  the  wheel,  is  not  clear.  A  pair  of  runners  at 
the  lower  forward  side  of  the  rear  wheel  may  be  lowered 
to  serve  as  a  brake.  The  foot-cranks  can  be  used  when 
desired,  but,  as  the  machine  weighs  one  hundred  and  forty 
pounds,  this  would  not  be  very  often  unless  the  rider  was 
fond  of  hard  work.  A  speed  of  thirty-two  miles  an  hour 
on  a  macadamized  road  is  claimed  for  the  machine.  Until 
the  weight  is  reduced  it  can  hardly  compete  with  the 
Hitchcock. 

An  interesting  motor  bicycle  has  recently  been  patented 
in  Germany  and  has  been  introduced  there  and  in  France. 
Messrs.  Wolfmuller  and  Geisenhof  are  the  inventors.  Its 
mechanism  will  be  easily  understood  from  the  two  dia- 
grams appended,  taken  from  La  Nature.  It  will  be  ob- 
served that  the  rear  wheel  is  solid,  instead  of  being  made 


HORSELESS    VEHICLES.  147 

of  light  spokes.  The  reason  given  for  this  construction  is 
that  the  little  motor  develops  two  and  a  half  horse-power, 
and  that  if  the  rear  wheel  were  made  to  weigh  six  pounds, 
as  in  many  bicycles,  there  would  be  danger,  in  a  wet  sjx)t, 
of  its  slipping  and  causing  the  engine  to  race  in  a  danger- 

FIG.  28. 


WOLFMULLER  &  GEisENHOF's  GASOLINE  BICYCLE.— A,  driving-wheel ;  B,  steering- 
wheel  ;  C,  D,  E,  F,  G,  H;  frame  tubes  ;  M,  gasoline  reservoir ;  N,  evaporator ;  O, 
valve  box ;  P,  lamp  and  ignition  chamber ;  p.  ignition  tube  ;  R,  Water  reservoir  ; 
S,  cock  for  regulating  the  entrance  of  gasoline  into  the  evaporator ;  T,  funnel  of 
the  evaporator;  U,  regulator  of  water  for  cooling  cylinders;  V,  distributing 
mechanism ;  W,  cylinders ;  I  J,  connecting  rod  ;  K,  cam ;  K',  roller ;  K",  rod  of 
the  distributing  mechanism  ;  L,  piston. 

ous  manner.  It  is  necessary  to  oppose  more  resistance  to 
the  pistons.  The  mechanism  is  covered  with  wire  guards, 
not  shown  in  the  accompanying  illustration  because  they 
obscure  the  parts.  This  bicycle  weighs  one  hundred  and 
ten  pounds,  and  the  touch  of  a  button  serves  to  vary  its 
Q  k  13 


148  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

speed  from  three  to  twenty-three  miles  an  hour.  The 
inventor  exercised  some  ingenuity  in  making  use  of  the 
hollow  tubes  of  the  frame  (which  is  double)  to  circulate 
water  for  the  cooling  of  his  cylinder.  The  gasoline  reser- 
voir is  said  to  contain  enough  fluid  to  furnish  means  for 
one  hundred  and  twenty  miles  of  travel.  It  must  be  con- 
fessed that  it  looks  small  for  such  a  claim.  The  gasoline 
is  vaporized,  drop  by  drop,  and  mixed  with  air  in  the 
driving-cylinder,  as  in  the  gas-engine,  a  small  lamp  being 
provided  to  explode  the  mixture.  On  the  handle-bar  is  a 
thumb-piece  by  which  the  rider  controls  the  operation  of 
the  motor.  It  is  true  that  the  mechanism  of  this  bicycle 
appears  a  trifle  too  complicated,  but  it  is  probable  that  it 
will  be  simplified  as  it  comes  more  into  use.  It  is  already 
an  assured  success  on  the  Continent,  and  will  soon  find  its 
way  to  America,  unless  some  of  the  home  inventions  prove 
better. 

While  speed  is  a  desideratum  in  all  these  vehicles,  it  is 
probable  that  the  public  will  not  demand  great  velocity, 
but  rather  give  preference  to  the  vehicle  that  will  show  the 
greatest  carrying  capacity  at  about  eight  or  ten  miles  an 
hour.  That  is  fast  enough  for  street  travel,  and  in  most 
cities  the  speed  is  restricted  by  local  ordinance  to  ten  miles 
an  hour.  The  vehicle  that  will  carry  four  persons  most 
economically  at  a  speed  of  ten  miles  an  hour  will  have  the 
call. 

In  England  electric  carriages  are  in  a  more  forward 
state  than  in  America.  The  better  roads  there  have  in- 
duced the  manufacturers  to  take  hold  of  them  more 
promptly.  Already  storage-battery  vehicles  are  in  use  in 
London,  and  Radcliffe  Ward  has  begun  to  operate  carts 
and  express-wagons  on  the  streets  with  electric  motors. 
An  electric  power-station  is  being  erected  in  that  city  for 


HORSELESS  VEHICLES.  149 

the  special  purpose  of  charging  the  batteries  used  by  such 
vehicles,  and  it  will  not  be  long  before  the  same  thing  is 
done  in  the  large  cities  of  the  United  States. 

It  is  pertinent  to  remark  here  that  these  vehicles  are 
considered  much  safer  than  horses.  Most  of  our  street 
accidents  (barring  the  reckless  trolley)  come  from  the  un- 
manageability  or  fright  of  horses.  The  automobile  vehicle 
never  gets  frightened,  and  its  driver  is  sure  to  be  at  least  as 
good  as  the  driver  of  the  average  horse.  Since  they  can 
turn  out  and  be  stopped  promptly,  there  is  no  prospect  of 
any  repetition  of  the  murderous  record  which  has  been 
made  in  several  cities  by  the  criminal  disregard  of  human 
life  among  street-railway  managers. 

As  proof  that  the  days  of  the  horse  as  a  motive  j>ower 
are  numbered,  it  is  sufficient  to  note  that  the  breeding  of 
common  horses  in  the  United  States  has  practically  ceased, 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  prices  obtainable  are  no  longer 
remunerative,  a  sure  sign  that  the  market  is  overstocked. 
More  than  half  the  street-cars  of  the  country  are  now 
operated  by  other  means,  and  the  lesser  half  are  only 
waiting  for  needed  legislation  to  enable  them  to  do  without 
the  horse.  It  is  estimated  that  over  one  hundred  thousand 
of  these  animals  have  been  dispensed  with  in  ten  years  in 
the  United  States  alone.  The  saddle-horse  has  almost  dis- 
appeared before  the  bicycle,  and  the  driving-horse  is  about 
to  be  ushered  out  by  the  automobile  carriage.  The  cabbies 
of  the  twentieth  century  will  all  have  vehicles  of  this  class, 
and  they  will  no  longer  stand  in  awe  of  the  agents  of  the 
societies  for  the  prevention  of  cruelty  to  animals.  There 
will  be  no  more  elopements  of  the  daughters  of  aristocracy 
with  the  family  coachman,  for  the  ladies  will  usually  pre- 
fer to  do  their  own  driving.  The  express  companies  will 
hail  the  innovation  as  a  boon,  and  neglect  to  put  down  their 


150  WONDERS   OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

rates.  The  public  will  adapt  itself  to  the  changes  as 
calmly  as  it  accepted  the  telephone  or  the  trolley,  and 
everybody  will  be  better  off.  But  does  it  not  seem  funny 
to  think  that  our  grandchildren  may  live  to  see  horses 
exhibited  in  museums  as  curiosities  ? 


BICYCLE    MANUFACTURE. 

Ingenious    Mechanisms   contrived  to  cheapen  and   improve   the 
Steel  Steeds — Severe  Tests  to  which  Material  is  subjected. 

THE  bicycle  is  a  very  simple  machine  in  principle,  yet 
its  manufacture  has  been  brought  to  a  degree  of  perfection 
perhaps  only  equalled  in  the  case  of  the  watch.  The  ne- 
cessity for  lightness  has  caused  an  excellence  of  workman- 
ship and  a  carefulness  of  detail  to  be  found  only  in  the 
highest  class  of  machinery.  When  the  modern  rubber- 
tired  machine  was  first  introduced,  about  1870,  well-made 
machines  weighed  from  sixty  to  seventy  pounds,  and  no 
American  rider  was  able  to  cover  a  mile  inside  of  three 
minutes  on  one.  To-day  twenty-pound  wheels  are  common, 
and  wheels  of  less  than  ten  pounds  weight  have  been  built 
for  exhibition  purposes.  The  speed  is  correspondingly  re- 
duced, a  number  of  riders  being  credited  with  a  mile  inside 
of  two  minutes.  In  order  the  better  to  understand  how 
such  a  perfect  machine  can  be  made,  it  is  advisable  to  give 
a  detailed  description  of  the  methods  employed  by  the 
best  makers.  Some  of  the  special  machinery  invented  to 
aid  its  production  is  almost  as  remarkable  as  the  bicycle 
itself. 

For  the  manufacture  of  hubs  a  reproducing  lathe  is 
used,  having  guides  by  means  of  which  each  hub  is  turned 


BICYCLE  MANUFACTURE.  151 

to  exactly  the  same  shape  as  others  of  its  kind.  The 
blank  is  usually  made  of  bronze  or  mild  steel,  and  has 
been  stamped  to  a  close  approximation  of  its  form  before 
going  into  the  lathe  to  be  finished.  In  boring  the  hub  to 
receive  the  spokes,  the  hub  is  mounted  upon  a  dividing- 
plate  that  insures  the  accurate  spacing  of  the  holes  without 
effort  on  the  part  of  the  operator. 

FIG.  29. 


THE   WAVKRLRY    AXLE. 


For  the  spokes  the  wire-makers  draw  a  very  tenacious 
steel,  which  for  straight  spokes  has  to  be  upset,  or  thick- 
ened on  the  end,  so  that  it  will  not  be  weakened  by  thread- 
ing. The  rim  end  of  straight  spokes  is  usually  simply 
spread  so  that  it  will  not  slip  through  its  hole.  The  tan- 
gent spokes,  which  by  reason  of  their  braced  arrangement 
may  be  made  of  lighter  wire  than  the  straight  spokes,  are 
usually  connected  with  the  hub  by  a  head  and  with  the  rim 
by  a  nipple. 

Rims  are  made  either  of  selected  hickory  or  of  bar  steel 
rolled  to  the  desired  thinness  and  brought  to  a  curve  by 
running  between  grooved  rollers.  The  ends  are  sometimes 
united  by  brazing,  but  the  latest  and  preferred  method  is 
electric  welding.  This  unites  the  ends  so  perfectly  that 
the  place  of  junction  is  lost  so  as  to  be  afterwards  unob- 
servable.  The  machine  used  crowds  the  opposed  ends 
together,  while  an  electric  current  heats  the  parts  to  a 
welding  temperature.  A  most  ingenious  machine  has  been 
invented  for  boring  the  rims.  It  will  be  readily  under- 

13* 


152 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


stood  from  the  cut.  The  drills  operate  from  the  exterior 
of  the  rims,  and  the  interior  braces  are  adjustable  to  any  of 
the  common  sizes  of  wheel,  and  serve  as  guides  in  drilling. 
The  hub,  rim,  and  spokes,  being  finished,  go  to  an  assem- 
bling-room, where  a  workman  puts  them  together,  and  with 
infinite  patience  tests  and  tries  each  spoke  by  tightening 
and  loosening  until  the  wheel  is  exactly  true  in  form. 

FIG.  30. 


RIM-BORING  MACHINE. 


The  steering-bar  is  usually  of  hollow  steel  drawn  very 
thin,  and  rendered  conical  towards  the  ends  by  hammering 
with  a  steam-hammer.  Many  makers  curve  it  while  cold 
by  filling  it  with  a  powder  that  prevents  distortion  while 
bending. 

The  steering-fork  is  made  in  several  parts,  the  crown 
being  drop-forged  or  made  of  brazed  pieces  of  sheet  steel. 
The  sides  of  the  fork  are  flattened  tubes,  tapered  in  a 
machine  made  for  the  purpose. 

The  cranks  are  simply  made,  being  drop- forged  from  a 
good  quality  of  spring  steel.  After  forming  they  are  hard- 


BICYCLE  MANUFACTURE.  153 

ened  by  a  slight  tempering,  so  as  to  bear  a  strain  of  about 
six  hundred  pounds.  The  slotted  hole  in  the  crank  is  made 
with  a  milling  machine,  the  crank  being  fed  forward  slowly 
until  the  hole  is  lengthened  as  far  as  desired.  The  attach- 
ment to  the  crank-shaft  is  accomplished  by  tapering  the 
latter  into  a  square  end,  or  by  means  of  a  pin  or  key.  The 
latter  method  is  usually  preferred.  The  key  has  to  be 
made  exceedingly  hard  to  withstand  the  strain. 

Sprockets  are  made  of  drop- forged  steel,  the  teeth  being 
accurately  cut  later  in  a  machine  similar  to  one  for  cutting 
gear-teeth.  They  are  screwed  onto  their  hubs  in  such  a 
manner  that  the  running  of  the  bicycle  tends  to  tighten 
them.  Some  makers  build  the  forward  sprocket  in  one 
piece  with  the  crank,  a  most  desirable  arrangement. 

Chains  are  usually  bought  from  chain  manufacturers, 
and  some  of  the  bicycle-makers  use  a  machine  for  lim- 
bering them  up  to  secure  easy  running.  On  one  of  these 
six  sets  of  sprockets  are  set  up  and  chained  at  a  time. 
They  are  run  for  an  hour  under  a  considerable  strain,  after 
which  they  will  go  like  "  greased  lightning." 

Ball-bearings  have  been  so  much  written  about  as  to 
have  become  familiar  to  all.  They  are  now  used  all  over 
the  bicycle.  About  ten  are  used  at  the  end  of  each  hub, 
twelve  to  fifteen  on  the  end  of  each  crank-hanger,  twenty 
to  forty  more  in  the  steering- head,  and  about  twenty- five 
in  each  pedal,  so  that  the  total  number  in  a  good  bicycle 
varies  from  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  fifty.  They 
are  excessively  hard  and  are  ground  to  shape  between 
oppositely  rotating  disks.  In  these  disks  are  grooves  in 
which  the  balls  are  revolved  along  with  emery  powder. 
There  is  a  tendency  of  late  towards  the  use  of  larger 
balls,  which  it  is  thought  reduce  friction  more  than  the 
smaller  sizes.  Some  builders  make  them  as  large  as 


154  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

three-eighths  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  cups  in  which 
the  balls  revolve  are  made  separate  from  the  hubs  or  other 
portion  of  the  machine  in  which  they  are  placed.  This  is 
done  for  convenience  in  tempering.  The  object  in  temper- 
ing is  to  secure  hardness.  The  disadvantages  of  tempering 
are  increased  brittleness  and  a  slight  distortion  of  the  part. 
The  distortion  involves  shaping  again  in  the  lathe.  This 
is  extremely  difficult,  because  the  tempered  cup  has  already 
been  made  almost  as  hard  as  the  tools  with  which  it  is  to 
be  turned  down.  Manufacturers  have  succeeded  in  making 
extra  hard  tools  that  will  cut  the  cups,  though  the  tools  are 
necessarily  very  brittle  and  subject  to  breakage. 

Special  lathes  are  made  for  turning  several  axles  at  once. 
Some  of  them  are  fitted  with  bells  to  notify  the  workman 
in  charge,  who  has  to  look  after  several  machines,  when  it 
is  necessary  to  readjust  the  tools. 

The  tubes  composing  the  main  frame  are  made  of  cold 
drawn  steel.  That  is  to  say,  they  are  drawn  through  dies 
that  reduce  their  thickness  and  tend  to  concentrate  and 
harden  the  metal.  These  tubes  are  cut  off  to  the  exact 
length  required,  in  a  machine  designed  for  the  purpose,  that 
severs  them  with  a  clean,  smooth  cut.  The  joints  are  drop- 
forged  and  bored  out  in  a  special  lathe  that  has  an  adjust- 
able jaw  on  the  face-plate  for  holding  the  part  to  be  bored 
at  the  desired  angle  against  a  drill  fixed  in  a  centre.  An- 
other special  machine  shaves  out,  with  a  single  cut,  the 
cavities  that  hold  the  ball-cups.  The  putting  together  of 
the  parts  of  the  frame  demands  very  careful  workmanship. 
The  tubes  are  now  made  so  thin — being  about  like  thick 
card -board — that  the  joinings  with  the  connections  must  be 
perfect,  and  so  accomplished  as  to  avoid  twists  and  strains 
that  injure  the  steel  and  shorten  its  life.  The  parts  are  set 
up  in  a  jig  or  framework  that  holds  each  piece  in  exactly 


BICYCLE  MANUFACTURE. 


155 


the  required  position.     A  gas  blow-pipe  is  then  employed 
to  braze  the  parts  together.     The  Waverley  method  is  here 


FIG.  31. 


BRAZING   A   BICYCLE  FRAME. 


illustrated.     Brazing  is  not  equal  in  strength  to  welding, 
therefore  the  joints  are  lapped  to  allow  of  the  brazing  of  a 


Fio.  32. 


THE  WAVERLEY  BRAZED  JOINT. 


larger  surface  and  to  get  greater  strength.     Borax  and  zinc 
are  used  to  assist  the  brazing,  and  when  the  work  is  done 


156  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

and  cooled  it  is  washed  in  acidulated  water  to  remove  the 
borax.  The  frame  then  goes  to  a  filer,  who  smooths  up 
the  joints,  taking  extreme  care  not  to  weaken  them.  The 
frame  is  then  polished  \vith  an  emery  stick  and  brush,  and 
enamelled. 

For  pedals,  the  rat-trap  styles  are  becoming  more  com- 
mon than  the  rubber.  They  are  made  of  sheet  steel, 
stamped  into  a  pattern.  The  foot-rest  also  is  usually 
stamped,  as  well  as  numerous  minor  parts  which  are 
cheaply  formed  in  this  way. 

The  saddle- post,  in  the  best  makes,  is  hollow,  and  of  T- 
form.  The  saddle-springs  are  made  in  so  many  patterns 
that  no  shape  can  be  said  to  be  standard.  Any  one  of  a 
dozen  forms  gives  equally  good  results.  Two  wires,  with 
numerous  curves,  form  the  prevailing  types.  The  wire  is 
of  the  best  spring  steel,  and  has  to  be  very  accurately 
tempered.  Some  ingenuity  is  exercised  in  attaching  the 
leathern  saddle  to  its  springs  by  riveting  in  such  a  manner 
as  to  avoid  tearing  the  leather,  or  straining  it  unduly  in  any 
part. 

Before  nickel-plating  or  enamelling,  the  parts  of  a  bi- 
cycle must  all  be  polished,  first  with  a  coarse  emery-wheel, 
then  with  a  fine  one,  and  lastly  with  a  revolving  brush, 
using  emery  putty.  Being  well  cleaned,  and  rubbed  with 
rotten -stone  or  Tripoli  powder,  and  washed,  it  is  ready 
for  the  galvanic  bath,  in  which  it  receives  a  thin  coat  of 
nickel.  After  nickel-plating  the  parts  are  rubbed  with 
sawdust  and  a  pasty  cloth. 

During  the  process  of  manufacture  of  high-grade  bi- 
cycles, every  piece  and  part  is  subjected  to  the  most  severe 
tests  and  examination.  The  steel  bought  comes  in  batches 
into  the  testing-room.  One  piece  of  each  lot  is  subjected 
to  tortional  strains  to  see  if  it  comes  up  to  the  required 


BICYCLE  MANUFACTURE.  157 

standard,  or  at  what  point  it  will  break  or  twist  before 
becoming  permanently  distorted.  Another  piece  is  tested 
for  compression,  and  another  strained  lengthwise  to  the 
point  of  rupture,  and  so  on  until  the  tester  is  abundantly 
satisfied  that  every  piece  of  metal  in  the  lot  is  up  to  grade. 
If  some  of  it  falls  below  grade  lie  orders  the  whole  lot 
destroyed.  Finished  parts  are  subjected  to  the  same  sort 
of  usage,  to  see  that  they  have  not  lx*en  unduly  weakened. 
This  costs  a  good  deal  of  money,  and  results  in  the  wasting 
of  some  material,  but  it  saves  the  bones  of  bicycle  riders, 
and  explains  why  it  is  sometimes  cheaper  to  buy  a  high- 
priced  wheel.  You  may  get  as  good  material  in  a  cheap 
wheel,  but  the  chances  are  that  you  will  not. 

Pneumatic  tires  are  made  in  several  different  ways,  and 
there  are  various  patents  dealing  with  their  construction. 
Removable  tires  are  liked  the  best.  Some  of  them  are 
simply  endless  tubes  hooked  into  the  hollow  of  the  rim. 
A  good  form  consists  of  an  inner  tube  rendered  air-tight 
by  rubber  and  protected  by  an  outside  cover  or  shoe  which 
is  open  all  the  way  around  on  the  inner  side,  and  fastens 
into  the  rim  by  projecting  flanges  which  pass  under  the 
turned-over  edges  of  the  rim,  and  are  held  there  by  the 
pressure  of  the  tire.  This  tire  will  remain  on  the  rim 
even  when  exhausted  of  air.  The  best  air-tubes  are  made 
of  pure  rubber,  and  are  moulded  in  two  or  three  layers,  so 
that  the  joints  of  the  layers  come  in  different  places.  The 
fabric  used  in  the  outer  case  is  a  high  grade  of  cotton. 

The  setting  up  of  a  completed  bicycle  is  no  small  task. 
It  is  well  known  that  any  machine  when  first  put  together 
runs  hard  until  the  parts  become  so  adjusted  together  as  to 
run  perfectly.  Purchasers  of  bicycles  will  not  allow  for  any 
such  "  working  easy"  after  use.  The  bicycle  must  be  made 
to  run  easily  and  perfectly  before  it  leaves  the  shop.  This 


158  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

requires  patience  and  perfect  adjustment.  The  fitter-up  in 
time  acquires  an  intuitive  sense  that  guides  him  to  the 
cause  of  the  trouble  when  a  machine  runs  hard. 

The  lamps,  bags,  and  etceteras  of  a  bicycle  are  frequently 
purchased  wholesale,  to  avoid  the  nuisance  of  cluttering 
up  a  shop  with  too  much  trifling  machinery. 


COMPRESSED-AIR   MECHANISMS. 

A  Synopsis  of  the  numerous  Uses  to  which  this  Form  of  Power 
is  being  applied — A  Competitor  of  Electricity. 

AIR  is  a  subtle  and  elastic  fluid,  and  it  is  not  surprising 
that  its  use  as  a  motive  power,  and  for  various  mechanical 
purposes,  should  have  grown  to  enormous  proportions 
without  attracting  wide  attention.  Certain  it  is  that  no 
one  not  intimately  familiar  with  the  history  of  compressed 
air  during  the  past  dozen  years  has  any  conception  of  the 
extent  and  variety  of  its  uses.  This  may  be  the  age  of 
electricity,  yet  compressed  air  is  coming  into  use  for  pur- 
poses entirely  similar  ;  in  fact,  it  steals  in  where  electricity 
leads  the  way.  The  power  of  compressed  air  was  known 
long  before  we  began  to  understand  that  the  electric  cur- 
rent could  be  made  useful,  yet  air  as  a  motive  power  for 
railways,  and  in  shops  for  driving  tools  individually,  has 
only  come  to  be  used  after  we  had  tried  electricity  and 
found  that  such  installations  were  convenient  and  econom- 
ical. 

The  machine  that  renders  air  serviceable  as  a  motive 
power  is  called  an  air-compressor.  It  looks  much  like  a 
steam-engine,  and  usually  there  is  a  steam-engine  cylinder 
incorporated  in  its  mechanism  at  one  end  of  its  bed,  while 


COMPRESSED-AIR   MECHANISMS.  159 

an  air-cylinder  occupies  the  other  end.  At  every  stroke  a 
cylinderful  of  air  is  compressed  by  a  piston  and  driven 
out  through  a  large  pipe,  the  action  being  the  reverse  of 
that  by  which  steam  drives  the  piston  in  its  cylinder. 

FIG.  33. 


THE  RAND  DIRECT-ACTING  STEAM   AIIM  O.MPKKS-OR. 

The  best  forms  are  of  the  horizontal  duplex  type  of  steam- 
engine,  with  air-cylinders  behind  and  in  line  with  the 
steam-cylinders,  and  so  coupled  that  one  piston-rod  serves 
for  both  cylinders. 

Storage-tanks  of  compressed  air  for  use  in  driving  street- 
cars are  quite  as  much  in  use  as  are  storage-batteries  for  the 
same  purpose.  Air  is  so  used  to-day  in  France  on  a  line 
between  Paris  and  Nogent-sur-Marne  and  on  the  Nantes 
Railway.  The  Paris  road  is  operated  by  about  six  large 
tanks  per  car,  each  set  of  tanks  containing  a  supply  of  com- 
pressed air  sufficient  to  carry  the  loaded  car  over  five  miles 
of  graded  road,  or  about  eight  or  nine  miles  on  a  nearly 
level  road.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the  cars  are  re- 
charged at  stations  about  one  and  a  half  miles  apart.  They 
have  the  advantage  of  being  smokeless,  also  of  making 
very  little  noise  and  dirt,  while  their  independence  of  a 
locomotive  or  of  wires  is  a  material  advantage.  Each 
motor  on  the  Paris  line  carries  a  pressure  of  two  thousand 

14 


160  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

pounds  to  the  square  inch.  A  simlar  railway  is  operated 
at  Berne,  Switzerland,  with  a  storage  capacity  of  only 
three  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  pressure.  In  either  case 
the  air  is  used  through  cylinders,  as  in  a  steam-engine,  at 
pressures  of  about  one  hundred  to  one  hundred  and  seventy- 
five  pounds. 

There  are  no  such  railways  in  America,  but  a  syndicate 
has  been  formed  to  introduce  them.  A  new  line  is  now 
(1895)  in  progress  in  France  between  the  Louvre  and  St. 
Cloud.  Here  atmospheric  locomotives  will  be  used  to 
draw  trains  of  three  or  four  cars  each. 

European  nations  have  been  more  prompt  in  seeing  the 
usefulness  of  compressed  air  than  have  Americans.  Most 
of  the  large  cities  on  the  other  side  have  systems  of  pneu- 
matic tubes  for  the  delivery  of  small  packages.  The  Paris 
installation  is  the  largest,  and  is  operated  on  the  plans  of 
M.  Victor  Popp.  The  company  sells  compressed  air  as 
electricity  is  sold  in  the  United  States.  They  supply 
pressure  to  about  two  thousand  pneumatic  clocks,  to  sev- 
eral street-railways,  to  refrigerating  establishments,  and  for 
utilization  as  power  in  driving  machinery.  It  costs  them 
only  ten  cents  for  every  three  thousand  cubic  feet  of  com- 
pressed air  delivered  to  customers.  The  London,  Berlin, 
and  Vienna  pneumatic-tube  services  are  used  principally 
for  letters  and  small  packages. 

In  the  United  States  there  are  but  three  cities  having  a 
system  of  pneumatic  tubes  worthy  of  the  name — viz.,  Phila- 
delphia, Chicago,  and  New  York.  Philadelphia's  system 
makes  use  of  the  largest  pipes  known  to  such  service, 
six  and  one-half  inches  being  the  diameter.  The  plant 
was  installed  in  1893  for  the  use  of  the  post-office  in 
delivering  packages  to  a  substation  half  a  mile  distant. 
It  is  to  be  extended  for  the  convenience  of  the  business 


COMPRESSED-AIR   MECHANISMS.  161 

public.  Chicago  has  a  short  pneumatic-tube  system,  con- 
necting the  newspaper  offices  and  press  associations.  New 
York  has  one  owned  and  operated  by  the  Western  Union 
Telegraph  Company  for  assisting  the  delivery  of  its  mes- 
sages between  up-town  and  down-town  offices. 

Compressed  air  is  probably  u^-ed  more  in  mining  enter- 
prises than  in  any  other  business.  No  mine  worked  on  a 
sound  basis,  situated  within  five  miles  of  an  effective  water- 
power,  should  be  without  its  air-compressing  plant,  located 
at  the  fall,  and  utilizing  the  power  to  compress  air  and 
send  it  to  the  mine  to  work  as  much  of  the  machinery- 
drills,  pumps,  engines,  hoisters,  etc. — as  the  power  will 
allow.  The  splendid  success  of  the  Hydraulic  Power 
Company,  of  Michigan,  in  leading  air  three  miles  from 
the  Quinnesec  Falls  to  Iron  Mountain,  to  drive  all  the 
machinery  of  the  Chapin  and  Ludington  iron  mines,  is  the 
largest  and  most  striking  proof  of  this  fact. 

When  competent  engineers  assert  that  compressed  air 
can  be  delivered  for  utilization  as  power  at  a  cost  not 
exceeding  twenty-one  dollars  per  horse-power  per  year,  it 
is  evident  that  it  has  a  future  in  cities,  where  power  is  com- 
monly sold  at  from  sixty  to  one  hundred  dollars,  or  even 
more,  per  horse-power. 

The  compressed-air  rock-drill  came  into  use  about  1865, 
and  by  its  aid  the  great  tunnels  of  the  world  have  been 
built — that  is  to  say,  the  blasting- holes  have  been  bored 
by  the  rock-drill,  to  which  compressed  air  was  supplied 
through  the  convenient  medium  of  a  hose. 

Railroad  shops  are  introducing  compressed  air  exten- 
sively to  operate  cranes,  hoists,  and  machine-tools  generally. 
It  is  liked  because  it  is  convenient,  and  because  it  lends 
itself  to  a  variety  of  peculiar  uses,  such  as  hoisting  oil 
from  barrels  by  turning  in  a  stream  of  air,  the  cleansing 


162  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

of  steam  passages,  and  even  for  running  letter-copying- 
presses  in  the  offices.  Another  novel  use  is  the  sweeping 
and  dusting  of  railway  cars,  shops,  etc.,  by  means  of  an 
ordinary  hose.  Car- cushions  are  thus  cleaned  better  and 
quicker  than  by  beating.  A  dump-car  has  been  invented 
recently  that  is  operatable  from  the  locomotive  by  means 
of  the  train-pipe.  A  ten-inch  dumping  cylinder  is  placed 
under  the  car,  after  the  manner  of  the  air-cylinder  of  an 
air  brake.  Numerous  safety  appliances  for  railroads  are 
operated  by  air,  as  switch  and  signal  systems,  etc.,  it& 
reliability  being  held  in  esteem.  In  winter,  alcohol  is  in- 
troduced in  the  exposed  pipes  of  such  systems  to  prevent 
freezing. 

Many  portable  tools  are  operated  by  compressed  air. 
Convenient  drills  have  been  recently  introduced  for  metal- 
boring,  the  power  being  applied  through  a  rubber  hoser 
enabling  the  user  to  place  the  tool  in  any  position.  War- 
ships have  been  calked  in  the  Cramp's  ship  yards  for  three 
years  past  by  air-calkers,  one  of  which  does  the  work  of 
four  men  and  does  it  better.  Boilers  and  tanks  are  calked 
in  the  same  way,  and  makers  are  glad  to  be  rid  of  the 
unevenness  incident  to  hand-calking. 

A  considerable  revolution  is  likely  to  be  worked  in  the 
business  of  dressing  marble  and  hard  stone  by  an  air- 
driven  portable  tool  introduced  in  1894.  A  long  adjust- 
able horizontal  arm  bears  a  reciprocating  piston  with  a  tool. 
By  a  succession  of  rapid  blows  a  stone  may  be  surfaced 
nearly  ten  times  as  fast  as  by  hand.  Ornamental  carving 
and  lettering  is  also  done  by  a  similar  tool,  and  it  is  possible 
to  reproduce  bas-  reliefs  in  marble  from  dies — a  thing  never 
before  accomplished. 

A  recently-patented  invention  that  promises  much  is  a 
system  of  moving  fluids  automatically  by  compressed  air. 


COMPRESSED-AIR  MECHANISMS.  163 

In  the  case  of  an  artesian  well,  a  small  pipe  is  run  down 
to  introduce  the  air  at  the  bottom  of  the  large  pipe  proper. 
In  rising  through  this  large  pipe  the  air  carries  the  water 
with  it,  thus  dispensing  with  plungers,  buckets,  etc.  Ob- 
jectionable mud  and  sand  are  got  rid  of  by  simply  blowing 
them  out.  This  system  has  been  introduced  for  local  water- 
works at  Rockford,  Illinois,  and  at  Wayne,  a  suburb  of 
Philadelphia. 

The  fog-siren,  for  warning  vessels  off  a  coast,  or  the 
like,  is  often  run  by  compressed  air.  The  French  have 
discarded  steam  for  this  purpose  as  inconvenient.  They 
now  use  the  air  at  a  pressure  of  only  twenty-eight  pounds, 
having  tried  various  higher  pressures  with  less  satisfactory 
results. 

A  large  machine-shop  in  St.  Louis  has  been  fitted  up 
entirely  with  compressed-air  apparatus,  a  twenty-ton  crane 
and  the  smallest  tools  being  alike  connected  with  the  reser- 
voirs. The  larger  tools  have  their  own  individual  motors, 
which  are  started  by  turning  on  a  cock.  There  is  thus  no 
necessity  for  idle  power.  Shafting  is  dispensed  with  ex- 
cept in  cases  where  several  small  tools  are  connected  with 
one  motor. 

Riveters  and  stay-bolt  cutters,  as  used  in  bridge  con- 
struction, are  now  frequently  run  by  compressed  air.  The 
Liverpool  electric  overhead  railway  was  put  together  with 
a  pneumatic  riveting  plant,  the  air-compressor  being 
mounted  on  a  track  and  run  along  the  rails.  In  this 
work  it  was  common  to  put  in  three  thousand  two  hundred 
and  forty  rivets  in  ten  hours  with  one  machine. 

Compressed  air  is  used  to  spray  petroleum  for  boiler- 
fuel,  and  has  the  advantage  of  furnishing  a  uniform  heat, 
regulatable  by  a  cock.  In  tempering,  welding,  japanning, 
etc.,  this  aerated  petroleum  spray  is  much  valued.  Water- 
l  14* 


164  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

supplies  for  cities  are  also  aerated,  as  at  Little  Rock, 
Arkansas,  by  means  of  air-compressors.  By  using  both 
filters  and  an  aerating  plant,  a  very  poor  quality  of  water 
may  be  made  fresh  and  sweet. 

Asphalt  requires  agitation  at  the  boiling-point  for  several 
days  during  process  of  manufacture.  Compressed  air  is 
the  only  satisfactory  agent  for  this  purpose.  The  mixture 
of  acids  in  compounding  nitro-glycerin  is  also  best  accom- 
plished by  a  similar  process. 

The  brilliancy  of  lamps  is  often  increased  by  a  draft  of 
air,  as  noticeably  in  the  lucigen,  which  employs  a  pressure 
of  thirty  pounds  to  atomize  the  oil.  Paint  is  also  atom- 
ized, and  put  on  with  a  little  nozzle  at  the  end  of  a  hose, 
being  fairly  driven  into  the  wood  if  desired,  or  sprayed  on 
in  the  most  delicate  manner  if  for  tinting  or  the  like. 

Cellulose  silk  is  made  from  wood-pulp  by  air  pressure, 
being  forced  out  of  minute  holes  in  a  tiny  thread,  six  of 
which  have  to  be  twisted  into  one  before  it  is  fit  for 
weaving.  Wood  already  forms  the  principal  constituent 
of  our  paper,  and,  if  this  invention  prospers,  it  may  also 
furnish  us  with  clothing. 

When  natural  gas  wells  weaken,  an  artificial  pressure 
of  air  may  be  used,  thus  enabling  the  gas  to  be  distributed 
to  a  distance  impossible  by  the  natural  pressure.  Com- 
pressed air  is  also  used  to  raise  sunken  vessels,  in  numerous 
ice- making  and  refrigerating  plants,  and  in  pneumatic 
tires.  A  London  concern  has  even  introduced  a  pneu- 
matic wheel.  It  is  a  hollow,  flattened,  spherical  chamber, 
made  of  tough  material,  having  two  metal  side-plates,  and 
a  hollow  centre  for  the  axle.  A  vehicle  wheel  thirty-one 
inches  in  diameter  is  eleven  inches  thick.  They  are  said 
to  make  riding  over  cobble-stones  a  luxury. 

Other  and  more  familiar  uses  of  compressed  air  deserve 


THE  CHAINING   OF   NIAGARA    FALLS.  165 

only  a  passing  mention.  The  air-brake  has  ceased  to  be  a 
novelty.  The  pneumatic  or  dynamite  gun  is  described  in 
another  chapter  of  this  work.  Air-cushions  have  been 
used  for  invalids  for  many  years,  and  blowers  have  be- 
come so  common  that  the  inventor  is  forgotten.  Probablv 
the  reader  is  already  convinced  that  compressed  air  is  des- 
tined to  increase  in  use,  since  it  is  so  peculiarly  convenient 
and  can  be  distributed  with  so  much  economy. 


THE    CHAINING   OF    NIAGARA   FALLS. 

The  Mightiest  Water-Power  of  the  World  at  last  trained  to  serve 
Mankind — Details  of  the  Construction  and  Power-Plant. 

THE  utilization  of  a  part  of  the  power  which  has  been 
going  to  waste  over  the  greatest  falls  in  the  world  is  not  a 
remarkable  thing  in  itself.  The  real  wonder  is  that  it 
should  have  been  so  long  delayed.  While  minor  water- 
powers  have  been  developed  all  over  the  land,  and  most  of 
them  fail  at  times  to  give  the  desired  flow,  here  is  one 
universally  known  to  be  constant  and  practically  exhaust- 
less,  which  has  remained  untouched  until  1889,  and  is  only 
partially  available  for  use  in  1895.  So  long  since  as  1847, 
Judge  Augustus  Porter  commented  upon  the  desirability 
of  making  use  of  the  Niagara  power,  and  issued  a  circular 
setting  forth  its  advantages,  and  outlining  a  scheme  for 
establishing  a  system  of  canals  and  wheel-pits  to  distribute 
the  power  for  use  at  moderate  distances.  Nothing  came  of 
it,  and  it  was  not  until  1886  that  the  matter  received  that 
general  attention  wrhich  presaged  success.  In  that  year  the 
New  York  Legislature  was  asked  to  charter  the  Niagara 
Falls  Power  Company,  the  prime  movers  in  the  matter 


166  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

being  citizens  of  the  locality,  who  had  become  enthused 
over  a  plan  laid  out  by  Thomas  Evershed,  M.E.,  of 
Rochester,  New  York. 

That  a  charter  and  a  scheme  will  not  erect  a  plant  and 
start  business  was  demonstrated  to  the  promoters  of  the 
enterprise  during  the  next  three  years,  which  elapsed  before 

FIG.  34. 


THE  TAIL-RACE  TUNNEL. 


the  money  was  forthcoming  for  active  work.  In  1889  the 
Cataract  Construction  Company  was  formed  by  capitalists 
of  New  York  City,  and  entered  into  a  contract  with  the 
original  company  to  equip  a  plant  that  should  develop  one 
hundred  thousand  horse-power.  Later,  the  Niagara  Devel- 
opment Company  and  the  Niagara  Junction  Company  were 
organized  to  develop  the  land  adjacent  and  construct  railway 
conveniences  for  manufacturers.  They  acquired  two  and 
a  half  square  miles  of  land  on  which  manufacturers  have 
been  invited  to  locate,  with  the  surety  of  obtaining  cheap 
and  reliable  power  for  driving  their  machinery. 

The  general  plan  adopted  for  utilizing  the  power  is  quite 
simple.     A  main  canal   leads  the  water  from  above  the 


THE  CHAINING   OF    NIAGARA    FALLS.  167 

falls  to  a  power-house,  where  the  water  takes  a  drop  of 
one  hundred  and  thirty-six  feet  through  great  pipes  onto 
turbines,  which  in  turn  convey  the  power  to  the  surface 
by  means  of  shafting  connected  with  vertical  dynamos, 
from  which  the  power  is  distributed  by  wire  to  any 
desired  locality  within  a  hundred  miles  or  so.  As  the 
wheel-pit  is  made  very  long,  new  turbines  and  connections 
can  be  added  as  wanted.  This  arrangement  was  not  de- 
cided upon  without  calling  into  consultation  the  most  ex- 
j>erienced  and  well-qualified  engineers  of  the  world.  A 
commission  was  called  together  in  London  to  decide  on  the 
best  plans,  and  its  members  were  Lord  Kelvin,  of  Eng- 
land, president ;  Professor  Cawthorne  Unwin,  of  London, 
secretary ;  Professor  E.  Mascart,  of  Paris  ;  and  Dr.  Cole- 
man  Sellers,  of  Philadelphia.  The  only  means  seriously 
discussed  for  distributing  the  power  were  electricity  and 
compressed  air.  The  results  to  be  obtained  were  figured 
as  about  the  same,  and  probably  the  reason  why  the  com- 
mission decided  upon  electricity  as  the  best  means  was 
because  its  possibilities  of  development  in  the  future  were 
considered  greater  than  those  of  compressed  air.  There  is 
not  good  reason  for  supposing  that  we  shall  discover  many 
improvements  in  methods  of  using  compressed  air,  but 
there  do  exist  good  reasons  why  we  may  expect  material 
simplification  of  electrical  appliances,  as  we  learn  more 
about  them. 

The  average  fall  of  water  over  Niagara,  according  to 
careful  estimates,  is  nearly  sixteen  million  cubic  feet  per 
minute,  or  eight  and  a  quarter  millions  of  horse-power. 
By  extending  their  system  the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Com- 
pany could  eventually  secure  four  millions  of  this  horse- 
power, the  larger  half  being  lost  because  the  company  only 
makes  use  of  one  hundred  and  thirty-six  feet  head,  while 


168  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

the  Falls  and  Whirlpool  Rapids  together  give  a  head  of 
two  hundred  and  seventy-six  feet. 

The  first  power-house  erected  by  the  Cataract  Construc- 
tion Company  has  or  will  have  a  capacity  of  fifty  thousand 
horse-power.  It  is  located  on  what  is  called  the  main 
canal,  about  a  mile  and  a  half  above  the  American  Fall. 
This  canal  is  about  a  quarter  of  a  mile  in  length,  and  one 
hundred  and  eighty-eight  feet  wide  and  seventeen  feet  deep 
ar  the  river  end,  tapering  to  a  width  of  one  hundred  and 
sixteen  feet.  It  will  carry  twelve  feet  of  water,  as  a  rule. 
The  walls  of  this  canal  are  constructed  of  solid  masonry, 
seven  feet  thick  at  the  bottom  and  three  feet  thick  at  the 
top,  the  stone  coping  being  two  and  a  half  feet  wide.  The 
wheel-pits  are  arranged  parallel  to  the  canal,  with  which 
they  are  separately  connected  by  conduits.  The  first  of  these 
wheel-pits  is  one  hundred  and  seventy-nine  feet  in  depth, 
one  hundred  and  forty  feet  long,  and  twenty-one  feet  wide. 
Its  arrangement  is  shown  in  the  illustration.  The  digging 
of  this  wheel-pit  involved  much  labor,  since  it  is  blasted 
from  the  solid  rock.  The  ragged  sides  are  protected  in  the 
most  substantial  manner  with  heavy  masonry.  It  is  de- 
signed for  eventual  extension  to  a  length  of  two  hundred 
and  sixty  feet,  and  after  such  extension  proves  inadequate 
a  second  power-house  and  wheel-pit  will  be  added,  which 
will  use  all  the  present  capacity  of  the  canal.  For  further 
increase  of  power  the  canal  will  have  to  be  extended.  The 
tunnel  for  the  discharge  of  the  water  from  the  wheel-pit 
is  more  than  a  mile  and  a  quarter  in  length,  emptying 
into  the  river  below  the  Falls.  Its  horseshoe  section  will 
be  observed  in  Fig.  34,  also  a  hint  as  to  its  construction. 
The  extreme  height  is  twenty-one  feet  and  the  greatest 
width  nineteen  feet,  giving  a  capacity  of  three  hundred 
and  eighty-six  square  feet  of  section.  The  concrete  casing 


THE   CHAINING   OF   NIAGARA    FALLS.  169 

FIG.  35. 


I.   THE   FIVE  THOUSAND  HORSE-POWER  DYNAMO.     2.   CROSS-SECTION  OF  SAME.      3.   IN- 
TERIOR OF  POWER-HOUSE  AND  WHEEL-PIT. 

is  made  of  one  part  Portland  cement  and  three  parts  gravel. 
A  track  extends  through  the  conduit,  having  been  laid  for 
the  convenience  of  the  workmen  in  building.  The  grade 
is  very  slight,  being  only  a  trifle  over  thirty  feet  for  the 
whole  distance,  but  it  is  calculated  that  it  will  deliver  over 


170  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

six  hundred  thousand  feet  of  water  per  minute,  a  quantity 
that  will  develop  somewhat  over  one  hundred  thousand 
horse-power  at  the  head  here  obtained. 

The  power-house  is  an  L-shaped  structure  over  the 
wheel-pit,  on  the  west  side  of  the  canal.  It  is  a  stone 
building,  with  steel  frame  and  roof,  the  latter  having  sixty 
feet  span.  The  principal  entrance  is  a  large  archway  that 
will  admit  a  railway-car.  To  the  left  of  this  are  the 
offices,  which  are  arranged  in  four  stories  in  the  L.  The 
power-house  proper  is  one  large  room,  so  arranged  that 
the  great  fifty-ton  travelling-crane  can  be  used  to  lift  ma- 
chinery at  any  part  of  it.  Here  we  see  the  row  of  dynamos 
or  generators,  over  whose  selection  there  was  so  much  con- 
troversy. The  illustration  gives  both  an  interior  cross- 
section  and  an  exterior  view.  These  dynamos  were  of 
necessity  constructed  under  severe  limitations,  being  re- 
quired to  deliver  five  thousand  electrical  horse-power,  with 
a  fly-wheel  effect  of  five  hundred  and  fifty  thousand  tons, 
and  not  to  rest  more  than  forty  tons  of  weight  on  the  shaft. 
A  variety  of  plans  were  offered  the  company,  which  rejected 
them  all,  and  gave  the  design  into  the  hands  of  their  con- 
sulting electrical  engineer,  Professor  George  Forbes,  who 
evolved  the  design  here  shown.  Several  of  the  engineers 
who  submitted  designs  have  protested  that  the  design  used 
was  but  a  utilization  and  combination  of  the  best  points  in 
the  designs  offered.  However  that  may  be,  the  dynamos 
are  quite  different  from  any  before  constructed,  as  might  be 
expected  from  the  unusual  condition  of  building  them  on 
vertical  instead  of  horizontal  shafts.  In  order  to  obtain  the 
necessary  fly-wheel  effect,  the  fields  are  made  to  rotate  out- 
side of  the  stationary  armature.  A  two-phase  alternating 
current  is  used,  of  low  frequency.  The  potential  may  be 
as  great  as  two  thousand  four  hundred  volts.  The  design 


THE   CHAINING   OF   NIAGARA   FALLS.  171 

was  somewhat  modified  by  the  engineers  of  the  Westing- 
house  Electric  and  Manufacturing  Company,  who  built 
the  first  three  dynamos,  before  they  would  guarantee  their 
efficiency. 

A  difficult  problem  in  the  arrangement  of  the  installa- 
tion was  the  taking  care  of  the  forty  tons'  weight  of  the 
dynamo,  with  thirty-six  added  tons  of  shafting,  etc.,  to- 
gether with  the  enormous  downward  pressure  of  the  falling 
water  in  the  pipe  or  penstock.  This  was  solved  by  closing 
the  bottom  of  the  casing,  so  that  the  water  cannot  act 
downward  upon  any  of  the  parts  attached  to  the  shaft, 
while  in  the  upper  end  of  the  casing  are  aj>crtures,  through 
which  the  water  can  act  upon  the  under  side  of  the  disk 
carrying  the  movable  blades  of  the  upj>er  turbine,  and 
relieve  the  bearings  of  the  weight  of  the  shaft.  In  this 
way  the  pressure  due  to  the  head  of  water  is  made  to  act 
upwrard  and  assist  in  supporting  the  rotating  shaft,  while 
the  weight  of  the  water  column  is  sustained  by  the  sta- 
tionary structure.  These  turbines  are  made  of  the  same 
quality  of  cast  bronze  that  is  used  in  propellers  for  ocean 
steamers.  They  are  of  the  outward-discharge  pattern, 
having  the  buckets  divided  into  three  sections,  so  that  the 
same  efficiency  can  be  obtained  at  the  opening  of  a  part  of 
the  gates  as  if  the  whole  are  opened.  These  gates  are 
operatable  from  above,  both  by  the  governor  and  by  hand. 
The  speed  of  revolution  is  two  hundred  and  fifty  a  minute, 
and  the  diameter  five  feet  three  inches,  which  seems  very 
little  when  we  reflect  that  each  will  develop  five  thousand 
horse-power.  Though  the  wheel-pit  is  one  hundred  and 
seventy-nine  feet  deep,  the  available  head  is  but  one  hun- 
dred and  thirty -six  feet,  measured  from  the  surface  to  a 
point  midway  between  the  opposed  wheels.  The  vertical 
shaft  that  makes  direct  connection  between  the  turbines 
H  15 


172  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

and  dynamos  is  a  rolled-steel  tube  of  thirty-eight  inches 
diameter,  reduced  to  eleven  inches  of  solid  steel  at  the 
bearings. 

The  Pittsburg  Reduction  Company  has  erected  a  plant 
about  two  thousand  five  hundred  feet  from  the  power- 
house, where  they  will  manufacture  aluminum,  using  about 
three  thousand  horse-power.  The  Niagara  Falls  Paper 
Company  is  also  located  there,  and  will  use  nearly  as  much 
power.  Various  other  concerns  are  negotiating  for  the 
location  of  factories,  including  one  to  make  calcium  carbide 
for  use  in  manufacturing  acetylene  gas. 

The  city  of  Buffalo,  which  is  but  eighteen  miles  from 
the  Niagara  Falls  Power  Company's  plant,  is  to  be  sup- 
plied with  electricity  direct.  Their  water-works  will  be 
furnished  at  a  charge  of  twenty  dollars  per  annual  horse- 
power, and  arc  lights  maintained  for  fifty  dollars  a  year. 
The  city's  contract  reserves  the  privilege  of  buying  the 
local  plant  at  the  end  of  twenty-five  years,  and  stipulates 
for  one  price  to  all  consumers,  large  or  small. 

The  future  of  the  Power  Company  is  regarded  as  very 
bright,  and  the  original  investors  should  reap  large  re- 
wards. It  is  thought  that  in  time  they, will  be  able  to 
deliver  power  to  New  York  City  at  a  rate  commercially 
profitable.  With  present  appliances  the  leakage  of  such  a 
line  would  be  too  great  to  maintain  it  with  profit,  even  if 
the  theoretical  first  cost  of  the  power  was  only  represented 
by  moderate  interest  charges. 

It  is  interesting  to  note  in  this  connection  a  near-by 
electrical  enterprise,  at  present  only  proposed,  but  which, 
if  it  goes  through,  will  undoubtedly  prove  a  customer  for 
power.  Some  genius  has  designed  an  aerial  electric  rail- 
way and  organized  the  Aerial  Tramway  Company.  They 
have  petitioned  the  New  York  Legislature  for  permis- 


IMPROVEMENTS   IN   TELEGRAPHY.  173 

sion  to  establish  a  landing-place  and  a  tower  in  the  State 
Reservation  Park  to  carry  one  end  of  their  cables.  They 
already  have  j>ermi.ssion  from  the  Canadian  government 
to  erect  their  conveniences  on  that  side  of  the  river.  If 
they  secure  the  desired  privileges,  they  will  cany  passen- 
gers over  the  very  brink  of  the  cataract,  and  only  thirty 
feet  above  it.  A  double  set  of  cables  will  be  stretched 
from  the  towers  in  the  Canadian  and  American  parks,  with 
a  supporting  tower  on  Goat  Island.  On  these  cables  cage- 
like  cars  will  be  suspended  by  trolleys,  and  o]x?rated  by 
electricity  from  the  American  side.  The  aerial  line  will 
follow  along  the  brink  of  the  American  Falls  to  Goat 
Island,  and  thence  to  the  Canadian  shore,  forming  a  sort 
of  cord  to  the  bow  of  the  Horseshoe  Falls.  The  cars  and 
cables  will  be  of  steel.  The  car-floors  will  be  so  perforated 
that  tourists  can  look  through  Mow  without  leaning  over 
the  sides.  If  properly  constructed,  this  aerial  tramway, 
as  the  projectors  choose  to  call  it,  will  be  as  safe  as  any 
suspension  bridge,  and  its  extreme  novelty  will  insure  its 
success  as  a  commercial  venture. 


IMPROVEMENTS    IN    TELEGRAPHY. 

A  Practical  Printing  Telegraph  already  in  Operation,  and  a  Pic- 
torial Telegraph  that  reproduces  Engravings  is  coming  soon. 

SAMUEL,  F.  B.  MORSE  did  a  great  deal  for  the  world 
by  his  inventions  pertaining  to  telegraphy,  and  J.  H. 
Rogers,  of  Washington,  promises  to  double  the  utility  of 
the  telegraph  as  an  adjunct  to  modern  business  conveniences. 
The  Morse  alphabet  is  simple  and  easily  learned,  but  the 
operation  of  sending  a  message  by  means  of  its  characters 


174 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


has  proved  sufficiently  difficult  to  require  the  aid  of  trained 
operators.  Mr.  Rogers  has  devised  a  system  by  means  of 
which  an  ordinary  typewriter  may  be  used  with  an  attach- 
ment that  punches  a  paper  tape.  This  tape  is  taken  to  the 
telegraph  office  and  run  through  a  machine,  whose  opera- 
tion is  synchronous  with  a  machine  at  the  receiving  station, 
where  the  message  is  automatically  printed,  and  delivered 
to  its  destination  in  the  form  of  a  letter.  This  system  gives 

FIG.  36. 


ROGERS'S  TYPEWRITER  PREPARING   TAPE. 

a  speed  of  two  hundred  or  more  words  a  minute,  which  is 
as  fast  as  a  person  can  talk  who  desires  to  make  himself 
understood.  It  has  the  added  advantage  of  insuring  the 
correctness  of  the  message.  No  repeating  at  double  price 
is  required  to  insure  accuracy.  The  message  received  must 
be  the  same  as  that  originally  written  on  the  typewriter. 

This  system  is  now  actually  in  operation  between 
Washington  and  Baltimore  by  the  United  States  Postal 
Printing  Telegraph  Company,  and  seems  destined  to  have 


IMPROVEMENTS   IN  TELEGRAPHY. 


175 


a  wondrous  growth.  Though  simple  in  its  results,  it  re- 
quired twenty  years  of  patient  experimentation  to  bring 
it  to  perfection.  In  order  to  simplify  transmission  the 


A,  PLAIN  VIEW  OF  TYPE  ARMS  ;   B,  FACE  OF  TYPE  MAGNIFIED. 

alphabet  was  reduced  to  eight  characters.  Every  letter 
known  to  the  English  language  is  composed  by  these  eight 
little  marks  in  a  manner  wondrously  simple,  when  you 

FIG.  38. 


ROGERS'S  TRANSMITTER. 

see  how  it  is  done.  These  eight  characters  are  arranged 
on  radial  arms,  and  so  attracted  by  magnets  that  they 
strike  combinations  giving  the  different  letters,  which  are 
punched  in  a  tape  connected  with  the  typewriter.  The 

15* 


176 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


tape  is  then  run  through  an  automatic  telegraphic  trans- 
mitter, as  shown  in  the  illustration. 

The  process  of  telegraphing  is  to  slip  the  perforated  tape 
on  a  small  rotating  cylinder  under  a  row  of  metal  points 
or  brushes,  so  that  each  of  them  may  drop  into  the  holes 


FIG.  39. 


ROGERS'S   SYNCHRONOUS  WHEEL  RECEIVING. 

on  its  line,  the  holes  representing  the  letters,  so  that  at 
every  rotation  of  the  little  cylinder  a  current  passes  over 
the  line  which  is  calculated  to  operate  the  impression  of  the 
type  at  the  other  end  by  means  of  magnets.  The  illustra- 
tion shows  the  stylus  points  and  perforated  strip  on  the 


IMPROVEMENTS   IN  TELEGRAPHY.  177 

cylinder.  The  centre  holes  serve  to  guide  and  regulate 
the  movement  of  the  tape  automatically,  so  that  no  manip- 
ulation is  required  to  assist  the  operation.  By  moans  of 
synchronous  wheels  at  either  end  of  the  wire  the  message 
is  repeated  at  the  terminus  by  a  process  too  complicated  to 
be  here  described.  Suffice  it  to  say  that  Mr.  Rogers  calls 
it  visual  synchronism,  and  that  the  receiving  operator  as- 
sists the  synchronism  of  the  wheels  by  occasional  pressure 
with  his  thumb,  when  he  observes  that  they  are  getting  out 
of  regularity.  In  this  manner  he  has  succeeded  in  receiving 
as  many  as  five  hundred  words  per  minute,  but  only  two 
hundred  are  claimed  as  an  average  durable  speed.  The 
receiving  operator  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  receipt  of 
the  message  but  to  keep  his  wheel  in  unison  with  the  send- 
ing wheel.  If  he  does  that  the  message  is  bound  to  come 
out  all  printed  as  sent. 

For  assisting  long-distance  transmission  an  automatic 
relay  has  been  devised  that  responds  to  impulses  repre- 
senting the  vibrations  of  the  musical  sounds.  If  this 
system  proves  to  be  all  that  its  promoters  claim,  it  is  likely 
to  revolutionize  the  postal  system  as  far  as  business  com- 
munications are  concerned. 

A  kindred  invention  is  that  of  N.  S.  Amstutz,  of  Cleve- 
land, Ohio,  who  has  devised  the  eleetro-artograph,  a  mech- 
anism for  transmitting  copies  of  photographs  to  a  distance 
by  means  of  the  electric  wire,  and  reproducing  the  same  at 
the  receiving  station  in  the  form  of  a  line  engraving  ready 
for  the  printing-press.  The  wrhole  operation  is  so  simple  and 
quickly  performed,  and  the  results  are  so  excellent,  from  an 
artistic  stand-point,  that  the  process  seems  likely  to  come 
into  use  for  mechanical  engraving  without  any  distance 
transmission,  as  it  is  much  quicker  in  operation  than  any  of 
the  processes  now  in  use.  The  success  of  the  method  hung 


178  WONDERS   OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

upon  the  synchronous  motion  of  two  cylinders,  as  with  the 
Rogers  invention,  and  Mr.  Amstutz  claims  to  have  over- 
come all  difficulties  in  this  direction.  Certain  it  is  that  the 
work  he  exhibits  as  done  by  his  machines  in  his  laboratory 
is  good  enough  to  print  in  any  periodical,  and  vastly  better 
than  any  of  the  crude  attempts  previously  offered  the 
public. 

In  this  invention  the  undulatory  or  wave  current  is  used, 
as  in  the  telephone,  and  the  transmitting  and  receiving 
apparatuses  each  bear  synchronously  rotating  cylinders. 
On  the  transmitting  cylinder  is  mounted  a  prepared  gela- 
tine film,  whose  construction  will  be  understood  by  reading 
the  chapter  on  photo-mechanical  processes.  This  gelatin 
film  has  been  hardened,  and  presents  a  surface  of  elevations 
and  depressions — elevations  where  the  picture  should  print 
black  and  depressions  where  it  should  print  white.  As  it 
rotates  on  the  advancing  cylinder  of  the  transmitter,  a 
tracer  or  point  is  rested  on  the  surface  of  the  film,  rising 
and  falling  with  the  undulations,  and  exaggerating  them 
by  leverage  so  as  to  communicate  motion  to  four  tappets, 
which,  as  they  rise  and  fall,  send  electric  impulses  over  the 
line.  In  the  receiving  apparatus  these  impulses  are  com- 
municated to  a  lever  bearing  a  diamond  cutter  that  traces 
on  a  wax  film  on  the  receiving  cylinder  a  duplicate  of  the 
gelatin  film  on  the  transmitting  cylinder.  From  this  wax 
film  a  plate  can  be  made  for  printing,  the  result  being  a 
line  engraving,  which  may  be  made  as  fine  as  desired. 

The  reader  will  readily  understand  that  the  principles- 
involved  are  such  that  the  work  is  not  necessarily  confined 
to  reproductions  for  the  printing-press.  Ornamental  de- 
signs upon  gold  and  silverware  may  be  copied  automati- 
cally, and  monograms,  etc.,  duplicated  indefinitely  with 
this  apparatus.  The  largest  field  is  for  illustrative  pur- 


IMPROVEMENTS  IN  TELEGRAPHY.  179 

poses,  and  it  is  thought  that  it  will  stimulate  the  use  of 
news  illustrations  in  the  daily  press.  Events  taking  place 
in  London  or  Paris  can  be  illustrated  in  the  papers  of  the 
United  States  witli  the  same  facility  as  if  occurring  in  the 
city  where  the  paper  is  printed.  Indeed,  the  difference  in 
time  between  the  cities  of  the  two  continents  would  often 
result  in  pictorial  representation  here  before  the  same  can 
appear  in  the  pages  of  the  local  press  over  there. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  this  invention  would  be  an  aid 
to  the  police,  as  furnishing  quick  means  for  sending  the 
portrait  of  a  criminal  all  over  the  country  when  he  is 
wanted  for  some  crime.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  however,  the 
detectives  depend  much  more  upon  descriptions  than  photo- 
graphs for  identifying  a  criminal.  The  uselessness  of  the 
photograph  in  this  connection  is  illustrated  by  an  English 
sheriff's  experience.  A  certain  criminal  was  wanted,  a 
reward  having  been  offered  for  his  capture.  He  possessed 
six  different  photographs  of  the  man,  and  had  them  repro- 
duced in  large  numbers  and  sent  to  the  local  police  all  over 
Great  Britain,  together  with  a  description  and  a  copy  of  the 
offer  of  reward.  Two  days  later  he  received  a  telegram 
from  the  efficient  head  of  police  in  a  small  town  :  "  The 
gang  located.  We  have  five  of  the  men  wanted  under 
lock  and  key,  and  every  prospect  of  securing  the  sixth 
before  night." 

Messrs.  Rogers  and  Amstutz  have  opened  to  the  world 
a  new  telegraph  and  a  new  picture-gallery.  Let  us  hope 
that  the  practical  operation  of  their  inventions  will  be  as 
rich  in  performance  as  they  are  in  promise. 


180  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


ELECTRICITY    DIRECT   FROM    COAL. 

A  Problem  which  Edison  and  Others  have  sought  to  solve — The 
Key  may  yet  be  found. 

THE  thoughtful  attention  of  many  investigators  has 
been  given  to  the  great  problem  of  converting  the  poten- 
tial energy  of  coal  directly  into  electrical  energy,  without 
the  wasteful  intervention  of  the  steam-engine,  and,  though 
the  solution  still  evades  the  profoundest  thinkers,  so  much 
light  has  been  thrown  upon  the  subject  by  various  experi- 
menters that  at  the  present  time  we  know  much  more  about 
the  conditions  that  govern  success  or  failure  than  we  did  a 
few  years  ago. 

Electricians  have  known  for  a  long  time  that  heat  could 
be  turned  directly  into  electricity  by  means  of  the  thermo- 
electric couple,  but  that  electricity  could  be  thus  produced 
economically  has  never  been  suspected.  Indeed,  it  is  a 
most  expensive  way  of  producing  a  very  minute  current. 
Nevertheless,  a  recent  inventor  claims  to  have  developed  a 
practical  motor  on  this  principle  that  will  produce  more 
electricity  per  pound  of  coal  burned  than  is  now  obtainable 
through  the  medium  of  the  steam-engine. 

The  metals  vary  in  conductivity.  Silver  is  the  best  con- 
ductor among  them,  and  lead  is  one  of  the  poorest.  If  we 
join  a  bar  of  silver  and  a  bar  of  lead  and  alternately  heat 
and  cool  the  junction,  an  electric  current  will  be  set  up  in 
a  wire  connecting  the  opposite  ends  of  the  bars.  This  cur- 
rent is  so  trifling  as  to  equal  only  the  one-hundredth  of  a 
volt  at  a  temperature  of  530°  C.  The  Clamond  generator 
is  a  philosphical  toy  constructed  on  this  principle.  It  con- 
sists of  the  arrangement  in  superposed  rings  of  pieces  of 
metal  alloys  that  have  been  found  to  produce  the  greatest 


ELECTRICITY  DIRECT  FROM  COAL.  181 

currents.  These  rings  are  insulated  by  asbestos  and  heated 
in  the  centre  by  a  gas-flame,  while  the  outer  ends  are  cooled 
by  radiation.  The  alloys  of  metals  have  peculiar  and  un- 
expected qualities,  often  widely  different  from  what  the 
component  metals  possess  alone.  It  has,  therefore,  been  an 
interesting  study  with  some  to  try  new  alloys  in  the  hope 
of  finding  a  combination  that  should  set  up  a  current  of 
reasonable  force. 

Some  twelve  years  ago,  Mr.  Edison  gave  much  attention 
to  the  solution  of  the  problem  by  means  of  thermo-elec- 
tricity, designing  a  generator  in  which  he  sought  to  attain 
the  desired  end  by  apparatus  of  highly  ingenious  construc- 
tion. The  operative  feature  was  the  magnetization  and 
demagnetization  of  iron  by  rapid  alternations  of  temj>era- 
ture.  These  alternations  of  magnetic  intensity  were  utilized 
to  generate  induced  currents  in  surrounding  coils.  This 
idea,  which  appeared  promising  at  first  sight,  never  went 
further  than  an  experimental  machine  that  was  not  satis- 
factory except  in  strengthening  the  opinion  of  electricians 
that  a  large  efficiency  could  never  be  hoped  for  from  any 
thermo-electric  generator. 

Very  recently,  however,  announcement  has  been  made 
in  the  newspapers  that  a  Hartford  inventor  was  trying  to 
improve  upon  diamond's  apparatus,  having  been  experi- 
menting with  alloys  in  the  hope  that  he  might  discover 
some  of  such  widely  different  conductivity  as  to  render  a 
thermo-electric  generator  a  useful  and  cheap  means  of  se- 
curing the  electric  current  direct  from  the  coal.  He  now 
claims  to  have  discovered  suitable  alloys,  and  to  have  per- 
fected a  generator  for  putting  the  same  into  practical  use. 
He  will  have  to  make  a  public  demonstration  of  these 
things  before  he  gains  credence  from  the  scientific  world. 
He  is  understood  to  form  his  alloys  into  wedges,  which  are 


182  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

combined  in  ring -form,  pains  being  taken  to  avoid  well- 
defined  junctions  and  to  merge  one  alloy  gradually  with  the 
other  where  the  wedges  meet.  Several  of  these  rings  are 
formed,  one  above  the  other,  as  in  the  Glamond  generator, 
being  separated  by  sheets  of  asbestos.  The  central  cylin- 
der, through  which  the  heat  is  applied  to  the  inner  ends  of 
the  couples,  is  lined  with  a  fire-proof  plastic  cement,  and 
the  cooling  of  the  outer  ends  is  accomplished  by  means  of 
a  circulating  current  of  cold  water.  A  common  coal-stove 
furnishes  the  heat,  and  the  electricity  is  carried  off  by  two 
wires,  as  from  a  dynamo.  Further  information  as  to  the 
development  of  this  interesting  apparatus  will  be  awaited 
with  interest. 

Efforts  are  also  being  made  to  solve  the  problem  from 
the  chemical  side.  The  correlation  between  chemical  and 
electrical  energy  is  a  well-established  fact,  and  in  the  case 
of  many  substances,  such  as  carbon,  is  capable  of  being 
expressed  quantitatively,  and  with  as  great  accuracy  as  the 
relation  between  heat  and  mechanical  force,  which  finds  its 
mathematical  expression  in  the  figures  expressing  the  me- 
chanical equivalent  of  heat.  In  the  ordinary  voltaic  cell, 
which  we  see  in  batteries  for  house  use,  as  in  ringing  door- 
bells, the  electric  energy  developed  is  derived  from  the  direct 
conversion  of  the  energy  of  chemical  combination,  and  the 
quantity  of  the  one  which  it  is  possible  to  realize  from  an 
electrolytic  cell  of  any  predetermined  constituents  may  be 
calculated  with  the  same  accuracy  in  terms  of  the  other, 
as  the  possible  mechanical  energy  which  can  be  developed 
from  the  combustion  of  a  ton  of  coal. 

Dr.  W.  Borchers,  of  Duisburg,  Germany,  has  attacked 
this  problem  and  sought  to  solve  it  by  chemistry,  his  line 
of  research  involving  the  construction  of  a  voltaic  cell  in 
which  the  cold  combustion  of  carbon  can  be  effected  with 


NIKOLA    TESLA   AND  HIS  OSCILLATOR.  183 

the  hope  of  obtaining  an  efficiency  approximating  nearly 
to  that  which  theory  indicates.  It  is  stated  that  the  learned 
doctor  has  been  so  far  successful  as  to  obtain  twenty-seven 
per  cent,  of  the  energy  of  combustion  of  the  fuel  in  the 
form  of  electrical  energy.  The  fuel  used  was  not  coal,  but 
the  result  obtained  is  none  the  less  remarkable.  When  we 
consider  that  only  about  fifteen  per  cent,  of  the  energy 
stored  in  the  coal  is  now  obtained  in  the  dynamo  bv  the 
medium  of  the  steam-engine,  Dr.  Borchers's  success  is  the 
more  marked,  and,  as  this  is  the  result  of  his  first  experi- 
mentation on  these  lines,  we  may  reasonably  hope  for 
further  efficiency  as  the  problem  is  studied  more  under- 
standingly.  Dr.  Borchers  has  communicated  the  result 
of  his  experiments  in  a  pajx?r  read  before  the  German 
Electro- Chemical  Society,  and  announces  the  conclusion 
that  the  problem  of  the  cold  combustion  of  the  gaseous 
products  of  coal  and  oil,  in  a  gas  battery,  and  its  direct 
conversion  into  electrical  energy  can  certainly  be  accom- 
plished. Considering  how  many  intelligent  brains  are 
struggling  with  this  problem,  and  the  success  already 
attained,  it  seems  not  too  much  to  prophesy  a  triumph 
early  in  the  coming  century. 


NIKOLA  TESLA   AND    HIS   OSCILLATOR. 

A  Wonderful  Electric  Machine  devised  by  a  Wonderful  Engineer, 
who  bids  us  throw  all  the  Steam -Engines  in  the  Scrap-Heap. 

NIKOLA  TESLA,  the  engineer  who  came  from  Europe 
some  ten  or  a  dozen  years  ago  to  beg  a  place  in  Edison's 
workshop,  has  proved  himself  a  fit  pupil  of  the  Wizard 
of  Menlo  Park,  and  capable  of  standing  with  him  as  his 

16 


184  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

peer.  In  his  oscillator  we  have  the  promise  of  an  inven- 
tion as  great  as  any  of  Professor  Edison's — an  invention 
that  is  liable  to  turn  a  third  of  the  machinery  of  the  globe 
into  old  metal  fit  but  for  the  scrap-heap.  He  has  har- 
nessed a  steam-cylinder  to  the  core  of  a  dynamo,  and 
released  the  intervening  mechanism  from  further  service. 
Steam-engines  of  all  sorts,  locomotives,  dynamos,  electric 
motors— all  these,  as  at  present  made,  will  be  useless  when 
Tesla's  oscillator  comes  into  general  use.  It  may  solve  the 
problem  of  knocking  a  couple  of  days  off  the  time  required 
to  cross  the  Atlantic,  and  it  will  save  our  coal  so  that  we  can 
make  one  pound  do  almost  the  work  that  was  done  by  two 
pounds.  For  conferring  this  boon  upon  the  world,  Tesla 
deserves  the  thanks  of  a  grateful  race. 

The  personality  of  the  man  is  as  interesting  as  his  work. 
He  looks  like  a  young  overworked  Slav,  and  that  is  what 
he  is;  but  he  writes  and  speaks  like  a  poet — with  this 
difference,  that  his  visions  are  real,  that  he  dreams  of  that 
which  is  possible  of  accomplishment,  of  mechanical  and 
scientific  projects  which  he  will  put  into  being,  if  his  days 
are  sufficiently  long.  No  one  who  knows  him  expects  that 
Nikola  Tesla  will  stop  inventing  when  he  has  completed 
the  oscillator.  Already  his  mind  is  set  on  a  score  of  other 
problems  as  useful  in  their  solution  as  the  one  that  is 
likely  to  be  settled  by  the  machine  with  which  we  are  now 
specially  interested.  He  suggests  that  in  the  not  distant 
future  he  may  be  able  to  give  us  light  at  a  small  fraction 
of  present  cost,  and  to  transmit  electric  intelligence  without 
wires  or  other  artificial  media. 

The  oscillator  has  been  made  in  several  forms,  Mr.  Tesla 
preferring  to  perfect  it  before  seeking  to  introduce  it 
generally.  That  shown  in  the  illustration  is  the  one  that 
was  exhibited  at  the  World's  Columbian  Exposition  in 


NIKOLA    TESLA   AND  HIS  OSCILLATOR.  185 

Chicago.  It  is  merely  a  steam- chest,  disassociated  from 
the  usual  governing  mechanism,  and  so  simply  and  accu- 
rately made  that  it  is  run  at  a 
pressure  of  three  hundred  and 
fifty  pounds  (double  the  press- 
ure practical  in  high-grade  high- 
pressure  steam-engines),  with- 
out any  packing,  this  steam- 
chest  being  joined  with  an 
electro-magnetic  coil  into  whose 
fields  of  force  it  thrusts,  reci pro- 
cat  ively,  armatures  carried  by 
its  pistons.  The  regulation  is 
accomplished  by  the  electric 
currents  thus  set  up.  The 

machine    Used    in    Tesla's    labo-    TESLA'S  OSCILLATOR  AS  SHOWN  AT  THE 

COLUMBIAN    EXPOSITION. 

ratory,  which  was  destroyed  by 

fire  early  in  1895,  was  used  to  run  sixty  incandescent 
lights.  Mr.  Tesla  was  about  to  give  his  invention  to  the 
world  when  the  fire  occurred,  which  delayed  the  introduc- 
tion of  his  wonderful  machine. 

The  latest  form  of  his  invention  might  be  called  a  double 
machine.  It  is  made  horizontal,  not  vertical  as  shown  in 
the  illustration,  and  is  all  arranged  on  one  base.  There 
are  two  electro-magnetic  generating  systems,  which  cor- 
respond to  dynamos,  and  one  small  steam-chest.  There 
are  two  pistons,  which  are  vibrated  by  the  steam  eighty  to 
a  hundred  times  a  second,  or  more  rapidly  than  the  eye 
can  follow  them.  Each  piston  bears  an  armature  which  is 
plunged  at  every  stroke  into  the  field  of  the  magnets. 
The  pistons  are  arranged  to  move  in  opposite  phase,  but 
could  be  changed  to  any  phase.  On  top  of  the  steam- 
chest  is  an  extra  miniature  oscillator,  designed  to  control 


186  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

the  admission  of  steam  and  make  the  vibration  of  the 
engine  independent  of  the  load.  There  was  never  any 
leakage  of  steam  from  this  oscillator,  notwithstanding  the 
absence  of  packing.  In  a  short  time  another  machine  of 
this  perfected  type  will  be  completed  and  offered  to  the 
public. 

It  has  been  calculated  that  the  oscillator  will  save  about 
eighteen  per  cent,  of  friction,  as  existing  in  the  average 
steam-engine,  besides  ten  per  cent,  of  belt  friction,  as 
wasted  by  the  indirect  connection  of  engines  and  dynamos, 
and  thirty-two  per  cent,  of  waste  of  energy  which  occurs 
in  the  ordinary  form  of  dynamo — a  total  of  fifty  per  cent. 
In  addition,  we  have  the  advantage  of  a  machine  with  so 
few  parts  that  wear  is  reduced  to  a  minimum,  and  so  auto- 
matically self- regulating  as  to  require  the  least  possible 
attention.  Engineers  generally  are  agreed  that  these 
things  are  to  be  expected  of  Tesla's  oscillator.  It  is  de- 
signed to  convert  steam  into  electric  energy  by  as  direct  a 
process  as  possible,  and  to  that  end  dispenses  with  rotary 
motion  in  the  fields  of  the  magnets,  which  is  not  essential. 
In  fact,  some  of  the  early  forms  of  dynamos  generated 
electricity  by  a  reciprocating  and  not  a  rotary  motion.  It 
is  primarily  designed  for  use  in  electric  lighting  plants, 
and  will  find  a  place  next  in  power-houses  and  later  prob- 
ably in  .steamboat  propulsion  and  electric  locomotives.  It 
should  cheapen  power  so  that  electrical  plants  will  sell  it 
at  greatly  reduced  rates,  causing  an  immense  increase  in 
the  use  of  electrical  power  and  doing  away  with  stationary 
engines  of  all  sorts. 

Concerning  what  he  may  give  us  in  the  future,  Tesla  has 
this  to  say  : 

"  Every  thinker,  when  considering  the  barbarous  methods 
employed,  the  deplorable  losses  incurred  in  our  best  system 


THE  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVE.  187 

of  light  production,  must  have  asked  himself,  What  is 
likely  to  be  the  light  of  the  future  ?  Is  it  to  be  an  incan- 
descent solid,  as  in  the  present  lamp,  or  an  incandescent 
gas,  or  a  phosphorescent  body,  or  something  like  a  burner, 
but  incomparably  more  efficient ?  .  .  .  Alternate  currents, 
especially  of  high  frequencies,  pass  with  astonishing  free- 
dom through  even  slightly  rarefied  gases.  To  reach  a 
number  of  miles  into  space  requires  the  overcoming  of 
difficulties  of  a  merely  mechanical  nature.  There  is  no 
doubt  that,  with  the  enormous  potentials  obtainable  by  the 
use  of  high  frequencies  and  oil  insulation,  luminous  dis- 
charges might  be  passed  through  many  miles  of  rarefied 
air,  and  that,  by  thus  directing  the  energy  of  many  hun- 
dreds of  thousands  of  horse- power,  motors  or  lamps  might 
be  operated  at  considerable  distances  from  the  stationary 


THE    ELECTRIC   LOCOMOTIVE. 

A  Number  actually  in  Use,  and  Others  being  developed — They 
may  in  Time  crowd  out  the  Steam- Locomotive. 

ABOUT  1887  or  1888,  when  electricity  came  to  be  ac- 
cepted as  the  motive  power  of  the  future,  many  persons 
expected  to  see  the  steam-engine  driven  out  of  use.  Grad- 
ually they  learned  that  the  dynamo  was  not  a  source  of 
power,  but  that  a  steam-engine,  water-wheel,  or  something 
of  the  sort  was  required  to  furnish  power,  which  a  dynamo 
or  generator  would  convert  into  electricity  and  transmit 
along  a  wire,  from  which  it  might  be  taken  again  and 
used  through  an  electric  motor.  Therefore  the  steam- 
engine  is  still  with  us,  and  likely  to  remain.  For  similar 
reasons  the  steam-locomotive  has  continued  in  use  while 

16* 


188  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

electric  roads  have  developed  all  over  the  world,  and  only 
within  a  very  short  period  has  the  downfall  of  the  "  iron 
horse"  been  predicted.  Truth  compels  the  admission  that 
the  latter  has  not  been  greatly  improved  since  the  days  of 
Stephenson.  True,  locomotives  are  vastly  bigger,  stronger, 
and  faster  now  than  they  were  then.  Still  they  are  very 
wasteful  machines.  While  perfected  stationary  engines 
develop  as  much  as  eighty-five  per  cent,  of  efficiency,  the 
locomotive,  owing  to  forced  speed,  eats  up  coal  in  a  manner 
perfectly  regardless  of  dividends  to  stockholders,  and  with 
but  little  disposition  to  assist  in  settling  interest  due  bond- 
holders. 

It  has  been  and  is  the  endeavor  of  inventors  of  electric 
locomotives  to  develop  a  machine  that  would  be  more  eco- 
nomical than  the  steam-locomotive,  and  perhaps  exhibit 
more  speed,  though  locomotives  as  now  built  will  run  faster 
than  railroad  managers  care  to  have  them,  owing  to  the 
frightful  results  to  be  anticipated  from  accidents  at  high 
speeds. 

Professor  C.  C.  Page,  of  the  Smithsonian  Institution, 
was  among  the  first  experimenters  with  the  electric  loco- 
motive. He  designed  one  in  which  a  fly-wheel  was  driven 
by  a  piston-rod  "  sucked'7  back  and  forth  between  two 
hollow  cylindrical  magnets.  In  1851  he  mounted  this 
motor  on  wheels,  and  furnished  it  with  electricity  from 
batteries  of  the  type  now  used  to  ring  electric  door-bells, 
though  much  larger.  On  this  locomotive  he  succeeded  in 
travelling  from  Washington  to  Baltimore,  but  found  that 
the  jarring  prevented  the  successful  operation  of  the  bat- 
teries. His  best  speed  was  a  mile  in  about  three  minutes 
on  a  favorable  grade. 

In  1879,  Dr.  Siemens  exhibited  an  electric  locomotive 
at  Berlin.  It  was  regarded  simply  as  a  novelty. 


THE  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVE.  189 

In  1880,  Professor  Thomas  A.  Edison  experimented 
with  an  electric  locomotive  at  Menlo  Park,  New  Jersey. 
This  was  improved  by  Stephen  D.  Field,  and  in  1883 
Edison  and  Field  exhibited  an  electric  railroad  at  the 
Chicago  Railway  Exposition,  using  a  three-loot  gauge  and 
three-wired  rails.  Their  locomotive  consisted  of  an  electric 
motor  mounted  on  a  carriage,  and  o|x?rating  the  driving- 
wheels  by  means  of  a  connecting  belt  and  pulleys.  They 
were  able  to  show  a  speed  of  twelve  miles  an  hour  on  a 
circular  track  of  fifteen  hundred  and  filly-three  feet, 

Leo  Daft,  about  1883,  exhibited  an  electric  locomotive 
at  Saratoga.  With  a  two-ton  motor  he  succeeded  in  pull- 
ing an  ordinary  passenger-car  with  sixty-eight  persons  at 
a  speed  of  eight  miles  an  hour  on  a  route  that  was  not 
favorable  as  to  grades  and  curves.  Mr.  Daft  subsequent!  v 
built  several  exhibition  roads  that  attracted  much  attention 
to  his  locomotive.  It  was  tried  for  commercial  purposes 
on  a  street  railway  in  Baltimore  in  1885,  but  was  after- 
wards abandoned  in  favor  of  the  trolley.  Both  the  Edison- 
Field  and  the  Daft  locomotives  were  tried  on  the  elevated 
railroads  of  New  York  City,  but  failed  to  supplant  the 
steam-locomotives. 

The  Thomson-Houston  and  other  wmpanies  introduced 
small  electric  locomotives  about  1891  for  haulage  in  mines. 
They  operate  by  overhead  trolleys,  and  have  a  moderate 
sale. 

The  J.  J.  Heilmann  electric  locomotive  is  being  tried  in 
France  the  present  year  (1895),  and  gives  great  promise 
of  success.  It  is  really  an  electric  power  plant  on  wheels. 
Instead  of  producing  the  electric  energy  at  a  station,  and 
sending  it  out  by  overhead  wires  to  the  cars,  the  entire 
mechanism  is  carried  as  a  locomotive.  The  first  one  built 
was  of  small  power  (six  hundred  horse-),  though  fifty  feet 


190 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


in  length.  As  will  be  seen  from  the  illustration,  there  are 
sixteen  wheels,  bearing  a  platform  of  steel  girders.  The 
smoke-stack  is  at  the  rear  end,  strange  to  say,  the  cab  with 
its  pointed  end  being  forward.  The  steam-engine  and 
boiler  are  much  like  those  of  any  steam- locomotive.  They 


FIG.  41. 


THE  HEILMANN  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVE. 


are  of  the  Brown  type,  and  as  well  made  as  it  is  possible 
to  build  a  modern  compound  condensing  engine,  and,  being 
directly  connected  with  the  large  dynamo,  which  occupies 
the  greater  portion  of  the  cab,  there  can  be  no  lost  power 
from  friction  between  the  two  machines.  A  switchboard 
stands  in  front  of  the  driver,  with  controlling  levers  on 
either  hand.  Each  of  the  axles  bears  a  rotary  electric 
motor,  so  that  all  of  the  wheels  are  drivers,  presenting 
less  chance  of  slipping  on  the  track  than  with  the  ordinary 
steam -locomotive,  part  of  whose  weight  rests  on  truck- 
wheels.  As  each  axle  of  the  Heilmann  locomotive  is 
independent,  there  is  no  difficulty  in  turning  short  curves 
at  good  speed.  The  cars  to  be  drawn  by  this  locomotive 
may  also  bear  electric  motors  on  the  axles,  to  which  the 
current  will  be  conveyed  by  wires  from  the  dynamo  on 
the  locomotive. 

The  total  weight  of  this  locomotive  is  one  hundred  and 
fourteen  long  tons,  and  the  tests  show  a  draw-bar  pull  of 


THE  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVE.  191 

fifty  thousand  pounds,  which  is  enough  to  pull  a  two- 
hundred-ton  train  at  a  high  speed. 

The  principle  of  this  electric  locomotive  of  Heilraann's 
seems  preposterous  at  first  thought.  People  say,  If  he 
must  use  a  steam-engine,  why  bother  with  converting  the 
power  into  electric  energy  and  then  conveying  it  to  the 
wheels?  Why  not  dispense  with  the  dynamo  and  motors, 
and  couple  the  engine  directly  to  the  drivers,  as  in  the 
ordinary  locomotive?  This  reasoning  is  not  correct,  how- 
ever. The  utilization  of  the  dynamo  and  motors  saves 
more  coal  than  it  costs  t<3  carry  their  added  weight  or  than 
is  lost  by  their  friction.  There  is  an  economy  of  time 
during  which  the  fires  have  to  be  run,  because  greater 
speed  is  obtainable  without  forcing.  The  saving  in  jar 
and  friction  by  dispensing  with  the  heavy  reciprocating 
parts  is  very  great.  Anyway,  the  Compagnic  de  1'Ouest, 
on  whose  lines  this  locomotive  was  tried,  were  so  well 
satisfied  with  the  tests  that  they  have  agreed  to  rent  two 
larger  locomotives  of  the  same  pattern.  These  are  now 
building,  and  will  be  on  a  much  larger  scale.  Each  is  to 
be  of  fifteen  hundred  horse-power,  and  capable  of  hauling 
a  two-hundred-and-fifty-ton  train  at  a  speed  of  sixty- two 
miles  an  hour.  Their  operation  is  looked  forward  to  with 
interest  by  railroad  men  the  world  over.  Their  cost  is 
estimated  at  about  thirty  thousand  dollars  each,  or  about 
three  times  that  of  an  average  steam -locomotive. 

The  Sprague  electric  locomotive,  shown  in  the  illus- 
tration, was  built  at  the  Baldwin  Locomotive  Works,  in 
Philadelphia,  after  designs  by  Messrs.  Sprague,  Duncan, 
and  Hutchinson,  and  was  completed  in  1895.  The  North 
American  Company  are  to  use  it  in  hauling  heavy  freight 
and  in  switching.  There  are  four  pairs  of  drivers  coupled 
together  by  quarter- cranked  connecting-rods.  The  weight 


192  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

is  one  hundred  and  thirty- four  thousand  pounds,  equally 
distributed  between  the  fifty-six-inch  drivers.  It  is  de- 
signed for  a  speed  of  thirty-five  miles  an  hour.  The 
draw-bar  pull  exceeds  ten  thousand  pounds,  each  of  the  four 

FIG.  42. 


THE  SPRAGUE  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVE. 


motors  being  of  about  two  hundred  and  fifty  horse-power. 
The  brackets  which  carry  the  motors  are  pedestal  boxes  of 
peculiar  form  made  of  cast  steel,  the  lower  sides  being 
arranged  to  be  dropped  out.  These  boxes  carry  both  the 
axles  upon  which  the  armatures  are  rigidly  mounted,  the 
field  magnets  being  concentric  to  them.  The  motors  are 
iron-clad,  the  field  magnets  consisting  of  two  steel  castings, 
having  two  field  coils  placed  at  the  ends  of  the  motors, 
forming  two  consequent  and  two  salient  poles.  Com- 
pound-wound magnets  are  used,  and  slotted  Westinghouse 
armatures.  The  whole  structure  is  carried  on  equalizing 
springs.  The  controlling  apparatus  in  the  cab  is  so 
arranged  that  the  engineer  sits  at  the  right-hand  side 
looking  forward,  no  matter  which  way  he  is  running,  for 
the  locomotive  is  a  double  ender. 

E.  Moody  Boynton,  of  West  Newbury,  Massachusetts, 


THE  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVE.  193 

whose  bicycle  railway  has  attracted  much  attention  within 
a  few  years,  is  now  experimenting  with  an  electric  locomo- 
tive for  the  same.  He  uses  upper  and  lower  rails,  guide- 
wheels  engaging  the  upper  rail.  The  driver  has  removable 
web  plates  fastened  to  hubs  rotating  loose  on  a  shaft  situ- 
ated in  the  frame.  The  armature  and  field  magnets  are 
between  these  web  plates,  one  element  fast  to  the  wheel- 
tire  and  the  other  to  the  shaft. 

The  General  Electric  Company  of  New  York  are  now 
placing  an  electric  locomotive  on  the  market,  intended  for 
use  in  drawing  heavy  trains.  It  operates  on  the  trolley 
principle,  receiving  the  current  from  an  overhead  con- 
ductor. One  of  thirty  tons  and  another  of  forty  tons 
have  been  completed,  and  these  are  in  use  in  railroad  yards 
as  switch-engines. 

But  the  triumph  of  the  electric  locomotive  is  best  de- 
monstrated by  the  ninety-five-ton  locomotive  just  placed 
(1895)  by  this  company  with  the  Baltimore  and  Ohio  road 
for  use  in  the  Belt  Line  tunnel,  and  built  for  a  speed  of 
fifty  miles  an  hour.  It  is  about  thirty  feet  long,  and 
stands  very  high.  The  cab  rests  on  two  enormous  trucks, 
having  four  wheels,  each  of  sixty-two  inches  diameter. 
The  axle  of  each  pair  of  wheels  is  in  the  centre  of  the 
armature  of  a  motor,  so  that  the  construction  is  very  much 
like  that  of  an  electric  motor  set  to  run  upon  a  pair  of  fly- 
wheels. The  motors  are  six-pole,  gearless,  and  are  flexibly 
supported  upon  the  trucks,  transmitting  their  motion  from 
the  armatures  to  the  wheels  by  means  of  an  especially  de- 
signed flexible  coupling.  The  method  of  spring  suspen- 
sion has  been  carefully  modified  to  allow  of  the  immediate 
adjustment  of  the  wheels  to  the  irregularities  of  the  tracks, 
thus  effecting  a  diminution  in  the  wear  both  of  the  motors 
and  tracks.  The  massive  armatures  are  of  the  iron-clad 


194 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM, 


type.  A  hollow  shaft  serves  to  carry  each  armature,  and 
through  this  passes  the  wheel-axle,  to  which  it  is  connected 
by  a  universal  coupling  that  allows  freedom  of  movement 


FIG.  43. 


THE  BALTIMORE  AND  OHIO  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVE. 

in  any  direction.     The  motors  are  the  largest  ever  used  in 
railroad  service. 

The  cab  is  spring-supported  on  the  truck,  and  is  built 
of  sheet  iron  and  wood,  having  windows  on  all  sides,  so 
that  the  occupants  have  an  unobstructed  view.  Within 
the  cab  is  set  up  the  series  parallel-controller,  by  means 
of  which  the  movements  of  the  locomotive  will  be  at  the 
command  of  the  driver,  as  also  the  air-pumps,  operated  by 


THE  ELECTRIC  LOCOMOTIVE.  195 

a  small  electric  motor,  to  supply  air  to  the  brakes  and  the 
whistle. 

The  overhead  arrangement  is  of  the  trolley  type,  yet 
the  trolley  or  wheel  is  entirely  dispensed  with.  Fixed 
above  the  track  in  the  tunnel  is  a  broad,  grooved  band  of 
metal,  through  whose  length  a  slider  may  run.  This 
slider  is  connected  by  a  pole  with  the  locomotive.  The 
grooved  metal  is  the  conductor  that  carries  the  current, 
which  is  too  powerful  for  an  ordinary  wire,  and  the  slider 
takes  the  place  of  the  trolley-wheel,  whose  rolling  contact 
is  insufficient  to  carry  the  strong  current.  This  locomo- 
tive is  also  equipped  with  bells,  safety  devices,  etc.,  and 
has  a  Janney  automatic  coupler  at  each  end.  This  is  un- 
doubtedly a  thoroughly  efficient  electric  locomotive,  calcu- 
lated to  handle  as  heavy  trains  as  any  steam-locomotive. 
It  remains  to  be  seen  whether  it  will  stand  the  test  of 
time. 

The  electric  locomotive  has  a  slight  advantage  over  the 
steam-locomotive  in  that  it  will  start  a  greater  load,  the 
pull  being  constant  throughout  the  entire  revolution  of  the 
wheel,  the  difficulty  of  variation  in  pull  caused  by  the 
dead-centre  of  the  steam-locomotive  being  avoided.  The 
other  advantages  are :  a  considerable  economy  in  coal,  re- 
duction of  the  hammering  and  side-strains  to  the  track, 
probable  less  cost  of  repairs,  and  the  practicability  of 
using  the  electric  locomotive  several  more  hours  daily  than 
the  steam-locomotive.  These  considerations  lead  many  to 
ask  whether  the  days  of  the  steam-horse  are  not  numbered. 
Already  their  manufacture  has  seriously  decreased,  owing 
to  electric  roads  taking  business  from  steam-roads.  Me- 
chanics are  agreed  that  they  cannot  be  materially  improved, 
while  the  electric  locomotive,  being  so  recent,  is  likely  to  do 
much  better  in  the  future, 
i  n  17 


196  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

It  remains  to  be  seen  which  type  will  develop  fastest, 
the  Heilmann,  large  and  cumbrous,  but  self  contained,  or 
the  General  Electric  Co.'s  or  the  somewhat  similar  Sprague 
type,  compact  and  mighty,  but  operating  from  a  power- 
house by  means  of  an  overhead  conductor.  The  Boynton 
locomotive  will  not  be  a  competitor  with  either,  being 
designed  for  light  railways  only.  It  seems  best  adapted 
for  pleasure  railways  at  sea-side  resorts. 


LIGHT-TRAFFIC    RAILWAY    SYSTEMS. 

Transportation  by  the  Electric  Trolley,  Steam,  Compressed  Air, 
Coal  Gas,  or  Ammonia,  over  Elevated,  Surface,  or  Under- 
ground Roads. 

IT  is  asserted,  apparently  with  truth,  that  the  street- 
railways  of  the  United  States  now  carry  more  passengers 
than  the  great  steam-railways  connecting  the  cities  of  the 
country.  By  the  name  street-railway  is  designated  all 
those  means  of  traffic  in  and  about  large  cities  and  towns, 
and  classed  as  trolley  roads,  elevated  roads,  rapid  transit, 
or  underground  roads,  etc.  Some  years  ago  the  capital  of 
the  country  was  directed  towards  the  construction  of  long 
lines  of  railway  across  uninhabited  territory,  and  it  is  be- 
cause of  this  fact  that  we  lead  the  world  in  railway  mile- 
age. Only  within  a  few  years  has  it  dawned  upon  the 
people  who  sunk  their  money  in  those  roads  for  developing 
the  far  West  that  the  best  place  to  build  railroads  was  right 
in  large  cities,  where  there  were  plenty  of  people  to  ride  on 
them. 

Though  it  must  be  admitted  that  the  American  capitalist 
has  been  slow  in  appreciating  the  value  of  city  railways,, 


LIGHT-  TRA  FFIC  RA IL  WA  Y  SYSTEMS.  197 

he  is  now  thorougly  convinced  of  their  value,  and  it  is 
comparatively  easy  to  capitalize  any  street-railway  for  which 
a  franchise  can  be  obtained.  There  are  now  about  twelve 
thousand  miles  of  street-railways  in  the  United  States  and 
Canada,  nearly  half  of  them  still  using  horse-power,  while 
the  remainder  are  o[x?rated  by  electricity,  steam-motors, 
and  cables,  in  the  order  named. 

New  York  City  uses  or  has  tried  about  all  the  systems 
in  vogue,  and  exhibits  a  preference  for  the  elevated  steam- 
railroad.  When  these  elevated  roads  were  first  talked  of, 
it  was  proposed  to  build  them  with  drawbridges  about  a 
mile  apart,  for  the  convenience  of  teams  or  wagons  of  un- 
usual height  desiring  to  pass  below.  This  reckless  propo- 
sition for  the  convenience  of  those  below  was  never  carried 
out.  In  1868  the  first  road — constituting  what  is  now  the 
lower  part  of  the  Ninth  Avenue  road — was  built.  Many 
thought  that  cars  run  on  a  track  supported  on  a  single  row 
of  iron  posts  could  not  be  safe,  and  for  this  and  other  reasons 
the  traffic  on  the  road  was  small  for  some  years.  During 
the  first  two  years  endless  cables  were  used  for  drawing  the 
cars,  but  later  were  abandoned  for  small  steam-locomotives, 
the  Forney  engines  being  the  type  used  to-day.  In  time  the 
New  York  public  came  to  like  the  elevated  cars,  and  the 
Ninth  Avenue  road  was  several  times  extended.  In  1878 
the  Sixth  Avenue  and  Third  Avenue  elevated  roads  were 
opened,  and  in  1887  the  Second  Avenue.  These  roads 
now  carry  nearly  half  a  million  people  twice  a  day — that 
is  to  say,  they  bring  that  number  of  people  to  business 
every  week-day  morning  and  carry  them  back  at  night. 
They  maintain  thirty-six  miles  of  double-track  road,  which 
cost  a  total  of  thirty-five  million  dollars. 

New  York  also  maintains  cable-roads  on  One  Hundred 
and  Twenty-fifth  Street,  Broadway,  and  on  Third  Avenue. 


198 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


It  is  thought  that  these  lines  will  substitute  an  electric 
wire  in  the  conduit  for  the  cable  in  the  near  future,  that 
system  having  been  much  perfected  within  a  few  years. 


FIG.  44. 


CABLE-DRIVING  PLANT,   AS  DESIGNED  BY   ROBERT  POOLE  A  SON. 

In  fact,  a  successful  conduit-electric  system  has  been  in 
operation  in  Buda-Pesth  since  1889,  being  built  on  the 
plans  of  Siemens  and  Halske.  Americans  seem  not  to 
have  been  so  successful,  but  they  can  now  profit  by  copy- 
ing the  good  points  of  the  Hungarian  line.  For  further 
information  on  this  point  see  the  chapter  on  conduit  rail- 
ways. The  other  lines  of  New  York  City  are  operated  by 


LIGHT-TRAFFIC  RAILWAY  SYSTEMS.  199 

horses,  though  it  is  rumored  that  one  or  more  of  them  will 
change  to  the  storage-battery  in  the  near  future. 

The  combined  means  of  transit  above  described  being 
inadequate  to  meet  the  demands  of  the  travelling  public,  it 
is  now  proposed  to  build  a  system  of  underground  roads, 
and  two  routes  are  projected  with  every  prospect  of  being 
built  in  the  near  future.  The  motive  power  has  not  as  yet 
been  decided  upon,  but  it  is  thought  that  the  electric  loco- 
motive will  be  chosen. 

Chicago  has  three  elevated  railways.  They  are  not  as 
popular  there  as  in  New  York,  the  surface  roads  carrying 
nine- tenths  of  the  traffic  ;  but  as  all  three  are  of  recent  con- 
struction, no  doubt  their  traffic  will  increase  as  the  public 
become  habituated  to  their  use.  The  last  of  these  roads  is 
not  yet  (1895)  in  running  order.  It  is  to  be  equipped 
with  electric  motive-power,  one  motor-car  drawing  a  short 
train,  according  to  the  demand.  It  is  thought  that  this  will 
be  cheaper  than  using  steam-locomotives,  and  the  annoy- 
ance from  smoke  will  be  avoided.  They  also  have  cable- 
roads  whose  tracks  have  a  mileage  of  34.77.  These  carried 
one-fourth  of  the  traffic  in  1894. 

The  street-railways  of  Philadelphia  carry  one  hundred 
and  seventy-five  million  passengers  annually.  The  trolley 
is  the  most  favored  means  of  propulsion,  though  the  cable 
was  used  first,  and  taught  the  public  the  value  of  rapid 
transit.  The  reduced  expenses  of  the  trolley  system  caused 
the  cables  to  be  superseded  thereby  in  1895.  The  trolley 
roads  have  caused  a  fearful  record  of  deaths,  killing  a 
number  of  hapless  pedestrians  every  month  and  injuring 
many  more. 

Brooklyn's  record  of  killed  and  maimed  by  trolley  acci- 
dents is  equal  to  that  of  Philadelphia.  In  two  years'  time 
a  hundred  deaths  and  five  hundred  personal  injuries  were 

17* 


200  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

reported.  Nearly  all  the  surface  lines  of  the  city  are  oper- 
ated by  the  trolley  system.  There  are  twenty-six  and  a 
half  miles  of  elevated  roads,  constructed  in  a  manner  very 
similar  to  those  in  New  York.  The  combined  street- 
railway  travel  of  the  city  is  about  three  hundred  thousand 
passengers  daily. 

In  Boston  trolley  roads  are  used,  the  cars  being  quite 
large  for  street-cars.  A  subway  for  electric  cars  is  also 
being  constructed  at  the  Hub.  In  San  Francisco  the 
cable-road  is  used.  In  most  of  the  minor  cities  of  the 
country  the  trolley  roads  prevail. 

London's  underground  railway  has  been  much  written 
about.  The  passengers  ascend  and  descend  at  the  stations 
by  means  of  elevators,  a  method  that  would  add  to  the 
comfort  of  American  elevated  roads.  The  fare  is  four 
cents.  There  are  two  companies  operating  underground 
lines,  and  they  carry  over  three  hundred  million  passengers 
annually,  while  the  omnibuses  and  suburban  steam  rail- 
ways carry  about  twice  that  number. 

The  street-railways  of  Paris  employ  steam,  horse  flesh, 
and  compressed  air  as  motive  powers  on  the  surface,  and  the 
storage-battery  on  the  underground  line.  These  batteries 
are  carried  on  a  sort  of  tender  which  supplies  the  motors 
of  the  cars,  which  are  coupled  up  as  short  trains.  The  total 
transportation  is  about  one  million  persons  daily. 

In  Berlin  the  horse-car  lines  are  arranged  to  radiate 
from  the  centre  of  the  city.  The  Berliners  ride  less 
than  the  Parisians,  their  roads  carrying  one  hundred  and 
twenty  million  persons  a  year.  The  universal  fare  in 
Germany  is  ten  pfennigs,  or  a  trifle  over  two  cents.  A 
number  of  electric  roads  are  being  built  throughout  the 
country,  the  extent  of  trackage  at  the  close  of  1894  being 
one  hundred  and  eighty  miles,  with  six  hundred  and  thirty 


LIGHT-TRAFFIC  RAILWAY  SYSTEMS.  201 

cars,  and  power  stations  of  a  total  horse-power  of  eight 
thousand. 

The  light-traffic  railways  of  the  United  States  have  been 
cutting  into  the  local  patronage  of  the  trunk  lines  seriously 
by  paralleling  them  for  considerable  distances.  A  nearly 
complete  trolley  line  now  extends  between  New  York  and 
Philadelphia ;  the  New  York,  New  Haven  and  Hartford 
Railroad  has  been  a  sufferer  in  Connecticut ;  the  suburban 
cities  around  Boston  present  a  perfect  net-work  of  electric 
roads ;  while  lines  are  now  projected  to  connect  Philadel- 
phia and  Harrisburg,  Baltimore  and  Washington,  Chicago 
and  Milwaukee. 

Of  the  various  methods  of  railway  building  for  street 
lines,  the  underground  or  tunnel  system  is  the  most  costly, 
the  equipment  involving  an  expense  of  from  three  to  five 
million  dollars  per  mile.  The  elevated  or  overhead 
system  comes  next,  with  a  cost  of  from  one-half  to  three- 
quarters  of  a  million  dollars  per  mile.  Then  cable  rail- 
ways, with  a  charge  of  three  hundred  and  fifty  thousand 
dollars  per  mile.  Probably  the  electric  conduit  system, 
which  is  described  in  another  chapter,  may  involve  an 
expenditure  of  one  hundred  and  seventy-five  thousand 
dollars  per  mile.  Next  in  first  cost  is  the  horse-railway, 
which  will  average  close  to  seventy-five  thousand  dollars 
a  mile  for  equipment.  The  electric  trolley  outfit  only  in- 
volves a  cost  of  forty-five  thousand  dollars  a  mile.  The 
storage-battery  and  compressed-air  systems  are  said  to  l)e 
even  lower  in  first  cost.  The  cheapest  for  ordinary  use  is 
undoubtedly  the  trolley,  as  is  evidenced  by  its  general 
adoption.  Under  special  circumstances,  any  one  of  the 
other  systems  may  be  preferred. 

The  trolley  system  is  too  well  known  to  require  any 
description  here.  In  a  few  places,  as  Cincinnati,  what  is 


202  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

called  the  double  trolley  system  is  used.  In  this  there  are 
two  overhead  exposed  conducting  wires  and  two  trolley- 
poles  on  each  car.  The  extra  wire  is  for  direct  return  of  the 
current  instead  of  employing  ground  connections.  This 
system  avoids  interference  with  underground  pipes,  which 
sometimes  suffer  from  electrolysis  because  of  the  ground- 
ing of  the  current  from  the  single  trolley  wires ;  but  it 
cumbers  up  the  streets  badly,  and  at  corners,  where  double 
tracks  cross,  the  whole  crossing  is  covered  with  a  net- work 
of  exposed  trolley  wires,  which  is  unsightly  and  somewhat 
dangerous. 

A  combination  of  the  electric  and  cable  systems  is  in  use 
on  a  most  interesting  road  at  Stanserhorn,  near  Lucerne, 
Switzerland.  This  is  a  mountain  railway,  over  three  miles 
in  length,  ascending  to  a  hotel  at  an  elevation  of  six  thou- 
sand two  hundred  and  thirty-three  feet,  almost  at  the  peak 
of  the  mountain.  The  road  is  built  in  three  sections,  the 
grade  of  the  highest  section  being  sixty  per  cent,  of  forty- 
five  degrees.  So  far  as  known,  this  is  the  only  mountain 
road  in  which  a  continuous  cogged  rail  or  rack  is  dispensed 
with.  The  cars  depend  entirely  upon  the  grip  upon  the 
cable  and  upon  automatic  brakes  for  gripping  the  track  for 
their  safety.  At  the  ordinary  speed  the  brakes  will  stop 
a  loaded  car  within  one-third  of  its  length.  There  has 
never  been  any  hitch  or  accident  in  the  operation  of 
the  road  since  it  was  built,  in  1893.  On  each  of  the  three 
sections  is  an  electric  motor-house,  where  are  located  two 
motors,  each  of  sixty  horse-power,  one  for  use,  the  other 
for  a  reserve.  These  motor-houses  derive  their  power  by 
feeder-wires  from  a  power-station  several  miles  away,  at 
Buochs,  where  the  river  Aa  has  a  fall.  This  same  power- 
house supplies  another  railway  and  sells  power  for  local 
uses.  The  Stanserhorn  Railway  only  pays  one  hundred 


LIGHT-TRAFFIC  RAILWAY  SYSTEMS.  203 

francs  (twenty  dollars)  per  horse-power  per  annum,  and,  as 
it  buys  only  one  hundred  and  fifty  horse-power,  its  annual 
bill  for  power  is  only  three  thousand  dollars.  Six  cars  are 
operated  during  busy  seasons,  and  each  car  seats  thirty -two 
passengers,  weighing,  with  that  load,  a  little  less  than  seven 
tons.  Each  car  carries  electric  signalling-rods,  and  all  the 
stations  are  telephonically  connected.  The  cable  is  made 
of  crucible  steel,  with  a  hemp  core  to  facilitate  bending. 
Its  diameter  is  an  inch  and  one-third  on  the  steepest  sec- 
tion, and  its  tensile  strength  sixty  tons.  This  road  cost 
only  three  hundred  thousand  dollars,  notwithstanding  it  is 
built  over  most  difficult  ground,  a  part  of  the  route  re- 
quiring to  be  tunnelled  through  a  loose  mass  of  fallen 
boulders. 

Another  interesting  mountain  railway  is  that  at  Pike's 
Peak,  completed  in  1891.  It  is  constructed  on  the  Abt 
system,  having  a  rack  or  double-cogged  rail  made  of 
parallel  bars  in  which  the  openings  are  staggered — that  is, 
arranged  with  a  tooth  always  back  of  a  space — and,  there 
being  two  cog-wheels  meshing  with  the  rack,  it  is  almost 
impossible  for  an  accident  to  happen,  which  would  throw 
all  out  of  gear  at  once.  The  power  of  the  locomotive  is 
applied  to  these  cog-wheels  under  a  reduction  of  speed, 
the  grade  l>eing  twenty-five  per  cent,  in  places.  The  road 
is  eight  and  three-quarters  miles  long,  and  attains  an  alti- 
tude of  fourteen  thousand  two  hundred  feet. 

The  steepest  mountain  railway  in  the  world  is  that 
projected  at  the  Jungfrau  in  the  Alps.  Its  grade  is  within 
two  per  cent,  of  forty-five  degrees,  and  its  construction 
resembles  that  of  a  lengthy  elevator.  It  is  to  be  a  cable- 
road,  the  whole  line  being  within  a  tunnel,  and  the  cars 
are  to  be  so  shaped  that  they  exactly  fill  the  circular  hole 
made  by  the  rings  of  the  tunnel.  Then,  by  introducing  a 


204  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

powerful  air-tight  door  at  the  lower  end,  all  serious  danger 
of  accident  due  to  a  breakage  is  avoided,  for  if  a  car  falls 
back  it  is  cushioned  by  the  air  behind  so  that  it  comes  to 
the  foot  at  a  very  gentle  speed. 

The  hydraulic  sliding-railway  system  has  attracted  in- 
terest at  various  times  because  of  its  novelty,  but  no  one 
with  capital  has  been  sufficiently  convinced  of  its  practica- 
bility to  put  a  line  in  operation  for  general  use,  though  an 
experimental  line  has  been  built  in  London.  The  pecu- 
liarity of  the  system  is  that  it  makes  use  of  runners  instead 
of  wheels  for  the  cars,  operating  on  the  principle  of  a  sleigh. 
These  runners  are  broad  iron  shoes,  shaped  like  the  face  of 
the  rail  on  which  they  rest.  The  sliding  surface  is  obtained 
by  forcing  water  at  a  higli  pressure  through  small  orifices 
in  the  soles  of  the  shoes,  or  runners,  so  that  the  escaping 
water  actually  lifts  the  runner  and  allows  it  to  glide  on  a 
very  thin  surface  of  water.  The  experiments  demonstrate 
that  with  a  perfect  track  on  a  level  the  friction  is  very 
much  less  than  with  wheels,  and  a  speed  of  one  hundred 
and  twenty-five  miles  an  hour,  with  an  enormous  saving 
of  coal,  has  been  theoretically  demonstrated  as  possible. 
The  propelling  power  is  also  furnished  by  water,  there 
being  water-jets  placed  between  the  rails  so  that  they  can 
be  automatically  opened  and  closed  by  the  train  itself. 
These  jets  impinge  on  pallets  located  under  the  cars,  much 
as  water  strikes  against  a  water-wheel.  As  the  railway 
involves  neither  locomotives  nor  wheels  of  any  sort,  it  in- 
volves a  very  large  saving  in  one  direction.  It  is  apparent, 
however,  that  it  would  be  very  wasteful  of  water,  and  the 
cheapness  with  which  this  could  be  obtained  would  be  an 
important  element  to  consider  in  its  construction.  Possibly 
such  a  road,  drawing  upon  the  Niagara  supply,  might  be 
made  to  pay  if  the  route  were  level.  On  heavy  grades 


LIGHT-TRAFFIC  RAILWAY  SYSTEMS.  205 

the  system  could  scarcely  be  expected  to  give  satisfac- 
tion. 

The  mechanism  of  a  cable  road  is  shown  by  the  illus- 
tration used  as  a  frontispiece,  representing  a  design  built  by 
Robert  Poole  &  Son  Company,  of  Baltimore,  Maryland. 
San  Francisco  was  the  first  city  to  adopt  this  equipment, 
Chicago  following.  When  the  first  Philadelphia  cable- 
road  was  built,  it  was  thought  that  several  hundred  thou- 
sand dollars  could  be  saved  by  constructing  the  casing  of 
the  conduit  of  comparatively  thin  sheet-iron.  This  was 
used,  and  did  very  well  until  the  frost  began  to  work  in 
the  ground,  when  the  sheet-iron  was  warped  out  of  shape, 
and  had  to  be  taken  out  and  thrown  into  the  scrap-heap, 
heavy  castings  being  substituted.  A  cable-car,  with  its 
arrangement  of  grips,  costs  a  little  more  than  the  trolley- 
car,  but  the  running  expenses  are  not  materially  greater,  so 
that  where  exposed  wires  have  been  objected  to  the  cable- 
road  has  proved  a  boon. 

Some  information  regarding  the  storage-battery  system 
of  operating  cars  will  be  found  in  the  chapter  on  "  The 
Storage- Battery,"  and  the  compressed-air  system  is  also 
referred  to  in  the  chapter  on  "  Compressed  -Air  Mechan- 
isms." 

Ammonia-motors  and  gas- motors  have  received  some 
attention  as  affording  desirable  means  of  power  for 
street-cars.  As  ammonia  vaporizes  at  a  very  low  temper- 
ature, it  has  been  particularly  attractive  to  experimenters 
searching  for  a  better  expansive  medium  than  steam.  At 
the  recent  Chicago  Exposition  the  world  was  made  ac- 
quainted with  a  promising  form  of  ammonia-motor,  de- 
vised by  a  Mr.  MacMahon.  He  has  developed  a  means 
of  securing  highly  purified  anhydrous  ammonia,  and  of 
preserving  the  exhaust  vapor,  which,  in  the  case  of  a 


206 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


steam-engine,  is  allowed  to  escape.     The  ammonia  being 
used  over  and  over,  the  only  cost  of  operation  is  the  coal 


FIG.  45. 


AMMONIA-MOTOR  APPLIED   TO  STREET  CiR. 

burned.  Under  somewhat  unfavorable  conditions,  Mr. 
MacMahon  was  able  to  drive  his  motor-car  at  a  speed  of 
fifteen  miles  an  hour,  with  a  coal  consumption  of  only  two 
cents  a  mile.  This  showing  was  so  favorable  that  more 
may  be  expected  of  the  ammonia- motor  in  the  future. 

The  compressed-gas  system  of  car-propulsion  offers  the 
same  general  advantages  that  are  claimed  for  the  storage- 
battery  and  compressed  air  systems — viz.,  absence  of  smoke, 
dirt,  wires,  and  noise.  There  are  two  systems  of  gas  motor- 
power  before  the  public,  both  European — the  Guillieron 
and  Amrein,  and  the  Luhrig  systems.  The  latter  is  shown 
in  the  illustration.  Twin  engines  are  placed  on  each  side  of 
the  car,  under  the  seats,  which  run  lengthwise.  Fourteen 
horse-power  is  required  for  a  car  seating  sixteen  persons. 
In  the  roof  are  cold-water  reservoirs,  while  the  gas  reser- 
voirs a  are  under  the  front  and  rear  platforms.  The  speed 
can  be  altered  by  means  of  a  pedal  under  the  foot  of  the 
motorman.  He  also  operates  hand-levers  to  throw  the 
motors  in  or  out  of  gear  in  stopping  and  starting  the  car. 


LIGHT-TRAFFIC  RAILWAY  SYSTEMS. 


207 


The  compressed  gas  is  delivered  by  regulators  to  the  motor- 
cylinders  bj  of  which  there  are  four,  so  that  one  may  always 


FIG.  46. 


cJL 


LUHRIG  COMPREtWED-GAS   MOTOR. 


be  in  action  upon  the  driving-shaft  c  (for  gas-engines  only 
give  out  power  every  fourth  stroke).  The  gas  is  admitted 
to  the  cylinders,  mixed  with  a  certain  quantity  of  air,  and 
ignited,  causing  an  expansion  or  small  explosion  of  gas, 
which  does  the  work,  d  is  the  driving-gear  for  connecting 
the  driving-shaft  with  the  driving-axles  e.  The  car  illus- 
trated and  described  weighs  seven  and  a  half  tons,  but  the 
maker  reports  that  he  has  succeeded  in  reducing  the  weight 
to  four  and  a  half  tons,  or  about  the  same  as  a  trolley-car 
of  the  same  capacity.  The  small  car,  \vhich  has  but  a 
single  motor,  consumes  thirty-five  feet  of  gas  per  car- mile, 
and  the  large  one  forty-two  feet.  The  cylinders  of  the 

18 


208  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

large  car  contain  ninety  cubic  feet  of  gas  compressed  to 
eight  atmospheres,  so  that  the  capacity  should  run  the  car 
about  seventeen  miles.  The  cost  of  fitting  up  a  charging- 
station  is  stated  to  be  three  thousand  dollars.  If  in  prac- 
tice there  arise  no  unforeseen  objections  to  this  system,  it 
appears  likely  that  American  gas  companies  will  seek  to 
introduce  it  here  in  order  to  increase  their  sales. 

While  electricity  undoubtedly  has  the  call  against  all 
other  systems  of  railway  power,  yet  we  may  expect  to  see 
various  other  motors  used  from  time  to  time  as  being  espe- 
cially suited  to  some  particular  form  of  transportation. 


CONDUIT   ELECTRIC    RAILWAYS. 

The  Coming  Substitute  for  the  Deadly  Trolley — Various  Plans, 
Some  of  them  Successful,  for  placing  the  Wires  Under- 
ground. 

THE  hue  and  cry  against  the  overhead  trolley  railways, 
because  of  the  annoyance  and  unsightliness  of  their  poles 
and  wires,  and  the  nuisance  of  exposing  bare  wires  in  the 
streets,  and  also  because  of  the  number  of  persons  who 
have  been  killed  and  maimed  by  being  run  down,  has 
caused  the  public  mind  to  become  turned  towards  other 
forms  of  electric  traction  for  light  railways.  It  is  true 
that  the  trolley  in  itself  is  not  responsible  for  the  many 
accidents  that  have  been  laid  at  its  door.  Any  other 
system  of  propulsion,  operated  at  a  like  speed,  without 
proper  fenders,  and  by  workmen  often  uneducated  and 
always  overworked,  would  have  been  equally  destructive 
to  life.  The  fault  has  not  been  with  the  trolley,  but  with 
the  methods  of  operating  trolley  roads. 


CONDUIT  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS.  209 

Nevertheless,  some  other  system,  doing  away  with  over- 
head wires,  is  going  to  come  into  use,  and  very  many  are 
looking  to  the  conduit  electric  system,  with  its  underground 
xxmductors,  to  solve  the  problem.  The  fiat  has  gone  forth 
in  many  large  cities  that  electric  wires  of  all  sorts  shall  go 
underground,  and  practice  in  methods  of  properly  insulating 
them  for  underground  service  has  given  experience  that  is 
useful  to  projectors  of  conduit  railway  systems. 

One  of  the  necessities  of  the  conduit  system  appears  to 
be  a  low  voltage — not  more  than  three  hundred  being  con- 
sidered desirable.  This  involves  more  expense  in  con- 
structing plants  and  stations,  but  is  compensated  for  by  a 
great  saving  in  leakage.  The  success  of  a  conduit  railway 
appears  to  be  dependent  more  upon  care  and  excellence  of 
construction  and  moderate  climate  than  uj>on  any  special 
form  that  has  been  tried.  It  will  always  be  more  costly 
of  installation  than  the  exposed  wire  system  of  the  trolley, 
but  when  once  generally  introduced  such  first  cost  should 
be  so  reduced  as  not  to  prove  prohibitive.  In  any  case, 
when  once  it  is  known  that  the  system  is  feasible,  city 
governments  will  begin  to  force  corporations  to  put  the 
wires  below  ground. 

The  many  advantages  apparent  from  using  a  conduit 
system  of  electric  railway  propulsion  are  so  manifest  that 
they  hardly  require  recording.  There  are  no  exposed  wires 
to  annoy  any  one,  and  it  should  prove  as  cheap  in  oper- 
ation as  the  trolley,  which  has  outstripped  every  other 
system  and  all  of  them  combined.  One  of  the  first  elec- 
tric roads  built  (at  Buda-Pesth)  was  on  this  principle,  and 
it  is  often  quoted  as  successful,  yet  the  conditions  in  more 
northern  cities  are  so  different  that  projectors  of  roads  in 
the  United  States  have  clung  to  the  trolley  as  affording  a 
surer  success. 


210  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

The  difficulty  has  been  from  the  inability  to  secure 
perfect  insulation  of  the  underground  wire.  Electricity 
has  a  sad  habit  of  going  off  to  any  near-by  parallel  con- 
ductor, and  in  a  conduit  the  ground  is  always  near  by,  and 
always  parallel,  and  when  things  are  moist — which  is  about 
one-third  of  the  time  in  the  climate  of  New  York — the 
electricity  escapes  at  a  rate  that  is  highly  expensive,  and 
causes  trouble  with  adjacent  water-  and  gas-pipes,  with 
resultant  suits  for  damages.  The  open  slot  affords  an 
entrance  for  snow  and  moist  dirt,  which  discharges  the 
electricity  in  a  very  annoying  manner.  It  is  a  difficulty, 
however,  which  electricians  think  can  be  overcome,  and,  if 
some  of  the  experimental  conduit  lines  now  being  tried  are 
satisfactory,  the  cable-roads  of  New  York  will  shortly 
adopt  the  conduit  electric  system,  placing  electric  con- 
ductors in  the  conduit  now  occupied  by  the  cable,  and 
passing  a  trolley-pole  or  plough  instead  of  a  grip  through 
the  slot.  This  will  make  it  impossible  for  the  cars  ever  to 
escape  from  control  and  run  away,  as  is  occasionally  the 
case  when  a  grip  gets  fast  to  a  cable  and  refuses  to  let  go 
its  hold. 

About  six  hundred  patents  have  been  issued  in  the 
United  States  for  forms  of  conduit  electric  railways,  which 
goes  to  show  that  inventors  are  very  much  alive  to  the  de- 
mand for  a  suitable  and  practical  system  on  this  principle. 
The  ordinary  idea  of  such  a  railway  is  that  it  is  necessarily 
a  simple  trolley-wire  run  through  a  slotted  conduit  between 
the  tracks,  connection  being  made  with  the  cars  by  means 
of  some  form  of  plough  passing  through  the  slot.  Our 
American  inventors  have  shown  that  they  are  not  ham- 
pered by  any  such  confining  conditions.  Joseph  Sachs  has 
classified  the  conduit  systems  as  follows  : 

"  1.  Open  slot  continuous  conductor  conduits,  in  which 


CONDUIT  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS.  211 

a  continuous  bare  conductor  is  placed  in  an  open  slotted 
trough.  2.  Movable  or  flexible  slot  cover  conduits,  using 
a  flexible  or  movable  cover  to  protect  the  wires  and  keep 


FIG.  47. 


THE  LOVE  CONDUIT,  WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

the  slot  closed.  3.  Surface  contact  systems,  in  which  the 
conductor  is  placed  on  the  surface  of  the  roadbed.  4. 
Sectional  open  slot  conduits,  with  a  sectional  conductor 
placed  in  the  conduit,  the  sections  being  switched  in  and 
out  of  connection  with  the  main  line.  5.  Raised  contact 
systems,  in  which  the  conductor  is  raised  above  the  surface 
of  the  roadbed  by  devices  on  the  car.  6.  Induction  sys- 
tems, in  which  the  car  has  no  connection  with  the  wire, 
but  the  current  is  transmitted  from  the  supply  wires  to 
the  car  by  induction.  7.  Miscellaneous  and  combination 
systems." 

The  first  conduit  electric  railway  was  built  in  Cleve- 
land, Ohio,  in  1884  (the  same  year  that  saw  the  birth 
of  the  first  trolley  road),  by  Messrs.  Bentley  &  Knight, 
over  a  two-mile  route.  They  made  use  of  a  small- 
sized,  nearly  square  trough,  set  in  the  middle  of  the 
o  18* 


212  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

track,  and  connected  to  the  rails  at  distances  of  a  few  feet 
by  U-shaped  irons.  Through  an  open  slot  in  the  top  of 
the  trough  passed  a  plough  depending  from  the  car  and 
rubbing  against  the  conducting  wires,  which  were  sus- 
pended within.  The  motor  was  placed  at  the  front  of  the 
car,  connecting  with  the  axles  by  cables.  The  undertaking 
did  not  prove  a  success,  and  was  finally  abandoned.  Very 
shortly  afterwards,  and  partly  coincident  with  this  road,  a 
very  similar  system  was  tried  in  Alleghany,  Pennsylvania, 
with  a  like  unfortunate  result. 

Another  form  of  conduit  was  tried  later  by  Messrs. 
Bentley  &  Knight,  on  an  experimental  road  in  Boston. 
In  this  case  a  horseshoe  trough  was  used,  set  outside  the 
rails,  and  gathering  the  power  from  two  wires  as  before 
by  means  of  a  dependent  plough  connecting  the  wires  as  it 
dragged  along.  This  time  the  motor  was  geared  to  the 
axle,  but  the  result  was  the  same — another  failure. 

Other  efforts  at  establishing  conduit  roads  were  doomed 
to  a  like  fate  at  Denver,  Colorado ;  San  Jose,  California ; 
and  Philadelphia.  There  are  three  conduit  roads,  how- 
ever, that  have  been  financial  successes — and  if  three  can 
be  made  to  operate,  why  not  three  hundred  ?  Buda- 
Pesth,  Hungary  ;  Washington,  D.  C. ;  and  Blackpool,  Eng- 
land, are  the  favored  cities  where  the  electric  cars  skim 
along  without  overhead  wires.  The  Buda-Pesth  road  is 
the  oldest,  and  to  those  experienced  European  electrical 
engineers,  Siemens  and  Halske,  is  due  the  credit  of 
building  the  first  road  of  the  sort  which  was  a  commercial 
success.  So  successful  has  this  road  proved  that  the 
original  route,  of  one  and  a  half  miles  in  1889,  has  been 
extended  to  seven  miles  and  double-tracked  nearly  the 
whole  distance.  About  fifty  cars  are  run.  The  conduit  is 
placed  beneath  one  rail,  or,  more  accurately,  beneath  a 


CONDUIT  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS.  213 

pair  of  rails,  for  the  peculiarity  of  the  arrangement  is  that 
each  side-rail  of  the  track  is  made  of  two  rails  lying  close 
together.  Between  the  pair,  on  one  side  of  the  track,  is 
the  open  slot  that  admits  the  plough  or  travelling  connec- 
tion to  the  conduit.  This  latter  is  almond-shaped,  and  a 
fraction  over  eleven  by  thirteen  inches  in  size,  with  a  slot 
one  and  three-tenths  inches  wide.  The  conduit  has  con- 
crete walls,  and  the  drainage  is  excellent,  so  that  there  is 
no  serious  loss  from  electric  leakage,  which  has  been  the 
death  of  most  American  conduit  systems. 

The  Love  conduit  system  has  proved  successful  at 
Washington,  D.  C.,  having  been  installed  in  1893  on  the 
Kock  Creek  line.  The  route  is  only  a  mile  and  a  half 
long,  and  the  conduit  is  very  much  like  that  of  the 
Broadway  cable  road  in  New  York.  A  large  casting 
supports  at  intervals  the  central  slot  and  the  side-tracks, 
together  with  a  pair  of  pipes  for  carrying  feeder-wires. 
Two  copper  wires  are  used  to  carry  the  current,  and  they 
are  supported  on  mica  insulators,  and  kept  in  tension  by 
means  of  springs  at  the  end  of  each  section.  The  travel- 
ling-contact is  mounted  on  a  trolley  carriage,  running  in 
the  slot,  and  detachably  connected  with  the  car-truck.  The 
conduit — which  is  twenty  inches  deep  and  fourteen  wide — 
can  be  inspected  at  any  point  by  moving  one  of  the  detach- 
able slot-rails.  There  are  also  man-holes  at  distances  of  a 
hundred  feet.  The  cars  are  arranged  as  for  a  trolley  road 
— in  fact,  they  are  also  used  with  an  overhead  trolley  on 
another  part  of  the  same  line. 

The  Smith  conduit — at  Blackpool,  England — was  com- 
pleted the  present  year,  and  it  is  too  early  to  say  much 
about  its  success,  but  the  management  say  that  it  is  entirely 
satisfactory.  They  make  use  of  a  central  conduit  and  slot, 
which  is  set  on  chairs  of  cast  iron  at  distances  of  three 


214 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


feet,  the  whole  resting  in  a  bed  of  masonry.  The  conduit 
is  the  smallest  in  use,  being  only  six  by  ten  inches.  The 
sides  are  of  wood  and  the  slot-rails  of  steel.  Instead  of 
using  wires  for  conductors,  small  slotted  tubes  are  hung 


FIG.  48. 


THE  BLACKPOOL  CONDUIT. 


on  insulators  to  carry  the  current.  The  pressure  is  three 
hundred  volts,  the  figure  to  which  European  lines  are 
usually  restricted,  though  that  used  on  trolley  lines  in  the 
United  States  is  almost  universally  five  hundred  volts. 

Another  conduit  road  is  being  built  in  Washington, 
D.  C.,  by  the  Metropolitan  Railroad  Company  for  its 
Ninth  Street  line,  on  plans  made  by  Engineer  A.  W.  Con- 


CONDUIT  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS. 


215 


nett.  A  central  conduit  of  good  size  is  used,  and  small 
T-shaped  rails  are  used  as  conductors,  the  contact  plough 
sliding  between  them.  The  castings  that  form  the  yoke 
being  large  and  substantial,  the  drainage  arrangements  ex- 
cellent, and  the  climate  of  Washington  moderate,  success 
is  anticipated. 

The  Metropolitan  Traction  Company  of  New  York  are 
equipping  an  experimental  line  on  Lenox  Avenue  which 
has  some  new  features.  A  continuous  vault  more  than 
three  feet  deep  extends  under  the  whole  line,  having  a 
concrete  floor  and  brick  walls,  on  which  the  tracks  rest  and 
which  afford  support  to  the  yokes  or  cross-supports.  The 

FIG.  49. 


THE  LENOX  AVENUE  CONDUIT,  NEW  YORK. 

conduit  is  of  sheet  iron  and  about  fifteen  by  twenty-five 
inches,  and  its  slot-rails  are  supported  in  the  firmest  man- 
ner by  bolting  to  the  yoke  and  by  occasional  rods  connected 
with  the  rails  of  the  track.  The  conductors  are  remark- 


216  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

ably  heavy,  being  formed  of  four-and-a-half-inch  rails, 
supported  on  soapstone  piers  at  thirty -foot  distances,  with 
intervening  lead  insulation.  The  piers  rest  in  sulphur- 
lined  troughs,  which  arrangement  would  seem  to  be  amply 
sufficient  to  protect  them  from  leakage.  There  is  a  man- 
hole at  every  insulated  pier,  to  render  access  easy.  Very 
little  moisture  can  enter  the  narrow  slot,  and  the  snow 
would  have  to  drift  in  to  a  height  of  over  two  feet  before 
it  reached  the  conducting  rails.  The  contact-shoe  slides  on 
the  conductors.  This  is  the  first  Northern  road  that  gives 
promise  of  success,  which  its  excellent  construction  would 
seem  to  insure. 

It  will  be  noted  that  all  the  successful  roads,  and  those 
which  promise  success,  make  use  of  two  conductors  in  the 
conduit,  with  a  travelling  device  for  making  a  connection 
between  the  two  and  receiving  the  current.  It  is  admitted 
by  electricians  that  a  single  wire  or  conductor  could  be 
used,  and  many  such  have  been  devised,  but  never  got 
beyond  the  experimental  stage,  as  the  double  wire  has 
more  advantages  in  practice.  Various  patents  have  been 
secured  for  devices  for  protecting  the  slot  so  that  snow  and 
water  could  not  enter,  and  interfere  with  the  service  by  in- 
ducing leakage  of  the  electrical  current.  Professor  Elihu 
Thomson  is  the  inventor  of  one,  which  consists  in  closing 
the  slot  with  a  series  of  wire  brushes,  which  would  bend 
aside  to  permit  the  passage  of  the  plough.  He  proposes  to 
use  either  a  single  or  a  double  brush,  as  may  be  desired.  The 
Van  Depoele  conduit  patent  proposes  the  use  of  two  strips 
of  flexible  material  to  cover  the  slot.  There  are  a  number 
of  other  patents  of  the  same  sort,  most  of  which  are  value- 
less, since  there  is  no  known  flexible  material  but  what 
would  be  subjected  to  ruinous  wear  in  being  constantly 
rubbed  by  the  ploughs  and  exposed  to  all  weathers.  A 


CONDUIT  ELECTRIC  RAILWAYS.  217 

better  idea  is  that  of  A.  F.  Petersen  Griffin  and  other 
inventors,  who  place  the  conductors  to  one  side  in  the  con- 
duit, and  protect  them  with  a  shield,  so  that  the  water 
cannot  reach  them.  This  involves  a  much-twisted  form 
of  plough,  and  probably  for  that  reason  has  not  yet  been 
adopted. 

Other  inventors  have  been  attracted  to  the  idea  of 
making  the  whole  conduit  of  insulating  material,  and 
others  to  the  introduction  of  heat  to  preserve  the  needed 
dryness.  Either  method  is  feasible,  but  the  cost  involved 
is  serious. 

What  is  known  as  the  surface-contact  method  has  been 
tried  by  many  devisers  of  systems,  and  two  or  three  of 
them  have  been  put  into  actual  use  in  an  experimental 
way.  One  is  the  Wheless  system,  used  on  a  short  line  in 
Washington,  D.  C.,  which  seems  to  be  the  city  for  nascent 
enterprises  of  an  electrical  nature.  This  makes  use  of 
contact-heads  or  plates  placed  at  distances  of  less  than  a 
car-length  between  the  tracks,  an  electro-magnetic  switch 
being  fastened  to  the  under  side  of  the  contact-plates,  so 
that,  while  the  car  may  easily  make  contacts  between  the 
switches,  their  distance  prevents  annoyance  to  other  ve- 
hicles, and  the  switches  themselves  are  amply  covered  and 
protected  by  the  plates.  Wheless  has  also  tried  a  modifica- 
tion of  this  system  in  which  he  makes  use  of  a  continuous 
slot.  The  other  system  referred  to  is  the  Johnson-Lundell, 
which  is  being  tested  in  New  York.  A  brush  or  roller  is 
carried  beneath  the  car,  to  collect  the  current  from  sectional 
rails  or  bars  which  are  placed  at  intervals,  under  the  con- 
trol of  magnets.  It  is  necessary  to  use  a  storage-battery 
of  small  capacity  to  start  the  car  and  to  furnish  power  to 
carry  it  over  crossings,  etc.  There  are  probably  a  hundred 
patents  making  use  of  the  switch  principle,  which  consists 


218  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

in  having  a  number  of  individual  switches  operated  in 
succession  by  a  contact  device  which  shall  always  cover  at 
least  two  switches,  so  as  to  maintain  the  current.  The 
Lawrence  system  has  been  tried  at  Wilmington,  Delaware, 
•consisting  of  sectional  rails,  operated  by  means  of  a  trolley 
through  a  slot,  the  rails  being  thrown  into  contact  with  a 
current  by  leverage  as  they  are  passed. 

Among  other  proposed  systems  is  the  Feltrow  raised 
conductor  system,  in  which  the  conductor  wire  is  drawn 
out  of  the  slot  as  the  car  travels  over,  and  dropped  back 
again  after  having  given  off  a  portion  of  its  current.  The 
Perrin  system  is  an  oddity,  since  the  cars  have  neither 
trucks  nor  wheels,  but  are  supported  by  a  motor  within 
the  conduit  by  means  of  stout  bars  projecting  from  the 
slot. 

Amid  a  multitude  of  counsellors  there  is  wisdom,  and 
among  the  many  hundred  devices  that  have  been  proposed 
no  doubt  some  will  be  found  sufficiently  practical  to  be  in- 
troduced wherever  electrical  propulsion  is  demanded  but  the 
overhead  trolley  forbidden.  Experience  seems  to  indicate 
that  such  a  system  will  make  use  of  the  open  slot,  and  use 
a  low  voltage,  perhaps  not  over  two  hundred  and  fifty,  and 
that  these  features,  together  with  great  attention  to  details 
in  the  matters  of  insulation  and  avoidance  of  leakage,  will 
result  in  success  for  conduit  electric  railways. 


A   HUNDRED   AND    TWENTY  MILES  AN  HOUR.      219 


A    HUNDRED     AND     TWENTY     MILES     AN 

HOUR. 

Railroad  Speed  that  is  not  only  Possible  but  Very  Probable  in  the 
Near  Future,  by  the  Brott  System  of  Rapid  Transit. 

IT  is  generally  conceded  that  sixty  miles  an  hour  is  the 
practical  limit  of  speed  on  steam-railways,  as  at  present 
constructed.  It  is  rather  startling,  therefore,  to  be  told 
that  a  company  has  been  formed  and  that  capital  has  been 
obtained  for  the  purpose  of  erecting  a  railway  which  will 
bear  trains  at  double  this  speed.  A  hundred  and  twenty 
miles  an  hour  is  a  speed  that,  if  maintained,  would  carry 
one  around  the  world  in  a  trifle  over  eight  days.  It  is 
faster  than  the  hurricane,  the  carrier-pigeon,  or  anything 
else  that  moves  upon  this  mundane  sphere.  Yet  the 
National  Rapid  Transit  Company  is  asking  the  United 
States  Senate  for  privileges  looking  to  the  establishment  of 
a  line  between  New  York  and  Washington,  and  specifying 
in  the  proposed  bill  that  the  schedule-time  shall  not  be  less 
than  one  hundred  miles  an  hour,  which  necessitates  a  speed 
of  a  hundred  and  twenty  miles  per  hour  to  cover  loss  from 
stops.  Further,  the  General  Electric  Company  of  New 
York  is  willing  to  guarantee  motors,  generators,  and  other 
electric  mechanism  for  such  a  road,  warranting  them  to 
maintain  a  speed  of  one  hundred  and  fifty  [note  the  fifty] 
miles  an  hour  when  delivering  a  hundred  horse-power  per 
motor,  with  two  motors  per  car. 

All  this  is  possible  through  what  is  known  as  the  Brott 
rapid  transit  system.  This  system  makes  use  of  what  is 
miscalled  a  bicycle  railway.  It  is  not  a  bicycle  construc- 
tion in  any  proper  usage  of  the  word,  which  means  two 
wheels ;  but  the  likeness  to  the  bicycle  is  found  in  the  fact 

K  19 


220  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

that  the  supporting  wheels  are  in  line  and  run  on  a  single 
rail,  instead  of  on  a  parallel  track,  as  in  the  ordinary  rail- 
way. It  is  an  elevated  road,  as  no  chances  can  be  taken 
with  grade  crossings.  The  supporting  wheels — or  traction 
wheels,  as  they  are  called — have  very  wide  flanges  to  keep 
them  on  the  track,  and  balance  is  assured  by  side  wheels 
which  may  occasionally  touch  the  side  stringers  if  the  cars 
oscillate  a  little.  It  is  well  known  that  a  body  running  on 
wheels  arranged  in  a  line  tends  to  remain  upright,  so  that 
these  side  wheels  will  have  little  to  do  except  when  a  train 
is  starting  or  stopping.  These  side  wheels  are  to  have 
pneumatic  tires,  to  prevent  jar  to  the  passengers  when  they 
impinge  against  the  stringers.  The  cars  are  to  be  made  of 
steel  and  vulcanized  timber.  The  electric  motors  will  be 
of  the  gearless  type,  operating  directly  on  the  axle,  one  on 
each  side.  The  electric  current  will  be  taken  from  a  con- 
ductor on  the  trolley  principle,  and  power-stations  will  be 
erected  about  fifty  miles  apart  to  supply  the  current  by 
feeder  wires  to  intervening  points.  The  conductor,  which 
will  be  almost  too  large  to  be  termed  a  wire,  will  probably 
be  carried  under  the  cars  instead  of  overhead.  It  will 
deliver  the  current  to  the  car-motors  at  a  pressure  of  one 
thousand  volts,  double  that  used  on  street-railways.  The 
generators  at  the  power-stations  will  develop  it  at  ten 
thousand  volts,  and  transformers  will  be  used  to  reduce  it 
as  it  reaches  the  conductors.  The  three-phase  alternating 
current  system  will  be  used. 

The  elevated  double-track  construction  is  such  as  to- 
mutually  brace  the  tracks.  An  even  grade  will  be  main- 
tained by  simply  altering  the  length  of  the  poles,  which 
will  be  cheaper  than  the  building  of  embankments  and 
cuttings  necessary  in  the  construction  of  surface-roads. 
An  almost  absolutely  straight  line  will  be  preserved,  as 


A   HUNDRED  AND   TWENTY  MILES  AN  HOUR.      221 

curves  interfere  with  speed.  The  supporting  poles  will  be 
about  twenty-five  feet  apart,  and  will  be  set  into  under- 
ground sills  and  braced  below  the  frost  line.  Light  trains, 
preferably  of  two  cars,  will  be  run,  and,  as  the  system  is 
entirely  express,  a  higher  rate  of  fare  may  be  expected 
than  is  charged  on  existing  lines. 

An  experimental  single-track  line  of  thirty  miles  is  to 
be  built  between  Washington,  D.  C.,  and  Chea*apeake 
Bay,  on  the  design  shown  in  the  illustration.  The  con- 


THE  BROTT  ELECTRIC  BICYCLE  RAILWAY.—!.  Car  of  Washington  and  Chesapeake 
Bay  Line.    2.  End  view  of  same.    3.  Double-track  construction. 

struction  is  most  economical,  requiring  no  iron  or  steel 
except  for  the  track-rails.  It  will  be  observed  that  the 
cross-sill  or  tie  rests  on  the  ground,  and  to  it  are  secured 
the  posts  that  support  the  stringers  and  side  rails.  The 
centre  stringer  has  supports  midway  of  each  span,  and 
being  so  near  the  surface  the  roadway  will  have  all  the 
strength  and  stability  required.  The  centre  rail  will  have 
normally  an  elevation  of  about  two  feet,  except  at  road-cross- 
ings, where  it  will  be  elevated  to  afford  passage  underneath. 
The  cross-ties  may  lie  on  the  ground  or  be  elevated,  as  the 


222  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

nature  of  the  ground  renders  desirable.  A  steel-truss 
construction  will  be  used  in  crossing  rivers  or  deep  gullies. 
The  wood  used  in  construction  is  to  be  subjected  to  a  pre- 
serving process.  The  peculiar  story-and-a-half  design  of 
the  car  should  be  noted,  the  half-story  being  below,  and 
constituting  a  room  forty  feet  long,  six  feet  wide,  and  four 
feet  high,  suitable  for  carrying  baggage,  the  mails,  etc.  It 
is  reached  by  outside  doors.  Above  is  the  compartment 
for  passengers. 

Another  line  is  projected  in  the  vicinity  of  Minneapolis. 
The  simple  construction  would  seem  to  be  well  suited  for 
pleasure  railways  and  light  passenger  traffic,  and  the  success 
of  these  lines  would  undoubtedly  lead  to  the  construction 
of  express  lines  between  the  great  business  centres  of  the 
world. 

It  is  interesting  to  consider  the  reasons  for  believing  that 
it  is  practical  to  maintain  the  high  speeds  possible  with  this 
system.  The'principal  resistance  to  speed  is,  of  course,  fric- 
tional,  and  in  the  case  of  a  railway  is  of  three  sorts — flange 
friction,  journal  friction,  and  rolling  friction.  Asa  bicycle 
railway-car  will  tend  to  stand  upright  without  mechanical 
assistance,  the  side  friction  of  the  flanges  will  be  reduced 
to  a  minimum.  A  reduction  in  the  curves  of  the  track 
will  also  effect  a  saving,  and  between  the  two  the  saving  of 
flange  friction  ought  to  be  at  least  seventy-five  per  cent. 
Journal  friction  can  be  reduced  in  about  the  same  propor- 
tion by  using  modern  steel-ball  bearings.  Rolling  friction 
can  be  reduced  by  the  use  of  lighter  cars.  It  does  not 
amount  to  much,  anyway.  Locomotives  have  a  recipro- 
cating motion  of  the  pistons  that  cannot  approach  in  speed 
the  rotary  motion  of  an  electric  motor.  With  every  stroke 
the  piston  and  connections  have  to  come  to  a  dead  halt  and 
be  reversed.  A  rotary  motion  is  continuous,  and  in  practice 


A   HUNDRED  AND   TWENTY  MILES  AN  HOUR.      223 

admits  of  certainly  twelve  times  the  speed  obtainable  with 
an  equivalent  reciprocating  mechanism.  Improved  tracks, 
having  no  severe  grades  or  curves,  will  do  the  rest. 

How  about  the  resistance  of  the  air?  some  one  will 
query,  at  this  point.  It  is  scarcely  worth  figuring  on.  If 
air- resistance  increased  with  the  square  of  the  velocity,  as 
many  have  maintained,  how  would  it  be  possible  to  fire  a 
projectile  twelve  miles  with  a  single  impulse?  It  is  now 
claimed  that  it  does  not  increase  in  that  ratio.  Mr.  F.  (). 
Crosby  has  demonstrated  that  air-pressure  increases  with 
the  velocity,  so  that  at  one  hundred  and  sixty  miles  an  hour 
there  would  be  twice  the  resistance  as  at  sixty  miles  an 
hour.  *  It  remains  to  be  seen  whether  his  conclusions  will 
be  accepted  by  physicists  ;  but  whatever  this  resistance  may 
amount  to,  it  is  in  practice  reducible  about  two-thirds  by 
making  the  forward  end  of  the  train  in  the  form  of  a 
pointed  cone,  so  that  the  air  simply  glances  off. 

Engineer  F.  L.  Averill,  of  Washington,  who  has  figured 
on  this  problem,  says  that  nine  hundred  and  forty-seven 
horse-power  would  be  sufficient  to  drive  a  train  of  the 
character  described  one  hundred  miles  an  hour,  on  a  two- 
per-cent.  up-grade,  against  a  head  wind  blowing  thirty 
miles  an  hour.  He  adds  : 

"  The  tractive  force  necessary  to  move  the  train  in  this 
last  example  requires  a  total  weight  on  driving-wheels  of 
eleven  thousand  eight  hundred  pounds,  far  within  the 
necessary  weight  of  motors  and  cars. 

"  The  power  shown  above  to  be  necessary  would  require 
only  from  eighty  to  one  hundred  and  eighteen  horse-power 
motors  to  be  applied  to  each  of  eight  driving-axles. 
With  six-feet  drivers,  to  make  one  hundred  and  fifty  miles 
per  hour  would  require  seven  hundred  revolutions  per 
minute.  That  the  power  and  velocity  of  motors  would 

19* 


224  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

be  well  within  present  possibilities  goes  without  say- 
ing. 

"  The  electricians  say  that  there  is  no  difficulty  likely  in 
conducting  the  electric  current  from  a  trolley- wire  to  motors 
at  this  speed. 

"  Lubrication  seems  without  difficulty,  provided  that  all 
wheels  are  made  somewhat  larger  than  in  the  present  rail- 
way cars  and  that  the  journals  are  ample  in  size  to  reduce 
the  pressure  on  bearings. 

"  It  would  seem  as  if  the  promoters  of  high-speed 
projects  had  only  to  provide  first-class  machinery,  cars, 
and  roadway,  taken  with  a  good  system,  in  order  to  fulfil 
their  expectations  with  perfect  safety.  The  benefits  from 
such  a  high-speed  service  are  incalculable.  The  influence 
upon  commerce  and  all  business  would  be  marked.  The 
great  economy  of  time  in  travel  and  transportation  would 
greatly  stimulate  both,  and  ought  to  bring  a  golden  return 
to  the  successful  project." 

The  whole  plan  is  so  entirely  practical  that  it  is  only  a 
matter  of  time  when  such  roads  will  be  established  between 
all  important  points.  The  substitution  of  the  electric 
motor  and  special  devices  for  fast  travel  may  be  delayed 
by  the  managers  of  steam-railways,  whose  business  will  be 
injured  thereby,  but  the  change  has  got  to  come.  Present 
methods  are  not  in  keeping  with  the  progressive  science  of 
the  age.  The  steam-roads  carry  a  ton  of  car- weight  for 
every  passenger  they  transport,  where  only  four  hundred 
pounds  are  required  with  the  new  system.  The  slaughter 
of  people  by  crossing  roads  built  at  grade  on  the  surface 
must  be  stopped,  and  this  is  one  way  to  avoid  it.  Why 
should  the  mails  occupy  twenty- four  hours  in  transit 
between  New  York  and  Chicago  when  the  distance  can 
be  covered  in  eight  hours?  Why  should  passengers  be 


THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  STEEL.  225 

bothered  with  sleeping-car  accommodations  to  make  a 
journey  that  can  be  accomplished  within  the  short  hours 
that  now  constitute  a  legal  working-day  ? 

In  the  Brott  system  locomotives  are  dispensed  with. 
The  motors  are  on  the  axles,  under  the  cars.  Hence  it  is 
possible  to  dispense  witli  the  mighty  locomotive,  that  has 
to  be  made  nearly  as  heavy  as  the  whole  train  in  order  to 
secure  a  proper  hold  upon  the  track.  Now  that  ocean 
steamers  have  so  closely  approached  railroad  speed,  it  is 
high  time  that  the  land  roads  forged  ahead  before  designers 
of  water  craft  catch  up. 


THE    MANUFACTURE    OF    STEEL. 

Improved    Methods   which   have   cheapened    Steel — Bessemer's 
New  Process  for  rolling  Fluid  Steel. 

THE  very  low  price  at  which  steel  is  now  sold  and  the 
vast  increase  in  its  use  afford  the  plainest  evidence  of  im- 
proved methods  of  manufacture.  Sir  Henry  Bessemer 
gave  us  a  cheap  method  of  making  steel,  so  that  it  was  at 
once  brought  into  common  use.  Both  British  and  Ameri- 
can steel-makers  have  improved  on  the  original  process, 
and  to-day  steel  is  as  common  and  as  low  in  price  as  iron. 
That  structural  steel  can  be  sold  for  one  and  three-tenths 
cents  a  pound  is  a  marvel  that  can  be  accounted  for  only 
by  noticing  the  steady  progress  of  improved  methods.  The 
development  in  steel-making  has  been  greater  on  this  side 
of  the  water  than  in  England  or  on  the  Continent,  and  that 
this  is  recognized  appears  from  a  quotation  from  a  paper 
read  by  Sir  Henry  Bessemer  a  few  years  since  before  the 
Iron  and  Steel  Institute  of  Great  Britain,  in  which  he  says, 


226  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

"  Our  American  cousins  .  .  .  are  prompt  to  recognize,  to 
adopt,  and  to  improve  upon  the  inventions  brought  forward 
in  Europe." 

Perhaps  the  best  way  to  give  the  reader  an  idea  of  pres- 
ent methods  employed  in  steel-making  will  be  to  describe 
one  of  the  latest  and  largest  plants  established.  In  June, 
1894,  the  Johnson  Company,  having  decided  to  leave  their 
works  at  Johnstown,  Pennsylvania,  and  build  greater,  began 
the  erection  of  a  Bessemer  steel  plant  at  Loraine,  Ohio.  As 
a  preparatory  step  they  purchased  four  thousand  acres  of 
ground  and  obtained  four  miles  of  river  front  contiguous 
to  Lake  Erie.  They  also  built  an  electric  railway  from 
Loraine  to  Elyria,  a  distance  of  ten  miles,  on  which  they 
run  their  trains  at  from  thirty  to  forty  miles  an  hour. 
Three  thousand  men  were  set  at  work,  and  within  ten 
months  the  manufacture  of  steel  was  begun.  The  build- 
ings of  the  plant  are  a  power-house,  bottom  house,  cupola 
building,  converter-house,  stripper-house,  furnace  build- 
ing, boiler-house,  blooming-mill,  Bessemer  boiler-house, 
roll-shop  furnace  building,  roll-grinding  building,  shape- 
mill,  hot-beds  building,  straightening  buildings,  cold- 
finishing  building,  and  splice-bar  shop.  As  several  of 
these  buildings  are  from  three  hundred  to  five  hundred 
feet  long,  the  magnitude  of  the  plant  can  be  inferred.  Six 
thousand  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  of  trenches  were  dug 
for  the  sewerage  and  water-supply,  and  over  two  miles  of 
narrow-gauge  tracks  were  laid  to  connect  the  buildings  and 
handle  the  material.  The  boilers  supply  nine  thousand 
horse-power.  A  large  dam  was  built,  where  sixty  million 
gallons  of  pure  water  can  be  stored. 

In  the  bottom-house  is  a  plant  for  preparing  the  refrac- 
tory material  with  which  the  converters  are  lined. 

The  power-house,  which  is  two  hundred  and  twenty-two 


THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  STEEL.  229 

feet  long,  contains  a  very  powerful  blowing-engine  of  the 
latest  cross-compound  type,  and  two  pressure-pumps  and 
an  accumulator,  to  furnish  and  regulate  the  hydraulic  ser- 
vice throughout  the  plant.  There  are  six  thousand  feet  of 
pipe  in  the  hydraulic  service,  all  laid  in  accessible  tunnels, 
so  that  leaks  can  be  promptly  mended.  Two  steam -pumps 
are  used  to  supply  the  water,  and  these  have  a  combined 
capacity  of  two  million  five  hundred  thousand  gallons. 
Four  large  dynamos  and  one  arc-light  machine,  with 
directly-connected  engines,  are  used  to  supply  power  to  the 
electric  road,  while  another  large  engine  and  dynamo  fur- 
nish power  to  the  various  electric  cranes. 

The  pig-iron  is  melted  in  four  cupolas  in  the  cupola- 
house.  Each  of  these  is  twenty-five  feet  high.  They 
receive  blasts  of  air  from  mammoth  tuyere-pipes.  All 
deliver  at  a  common  point — above  the  track  on  which 
stands  the  iron  ladle  used  to  carry  the  metal  to  the  con- 
verter-house. In  the  latter  building  are  two  of  the 
largest  converters  ever  made.  Each  will  hold  twelve 
gross  tons  of  metal.  These  converters  are  great  metal 
retorts  mounted  on  central  trunnions,  like  a  cannon,  so 
that  they  can  be  tipped  and  poured.  In  them  the  pig-iron 
is  converted  into  steel  by  the  Bessemer  process.  When  the 
metal  is  ready  the  converter  is  tipped  by  great  gear-wheels, 
and  the  molten  steel  run  out  into  a  twenty-ton  ladle-crane, 
which  serves  both  conveyors,  but  which  is  so  carefully 
mounted  on  ball-bearings  that  it  can  be  operated  by  a  single 
man.  The  steel  ingots  are  cast  into  cars,  and  are  made  in 
two  sizes,  weighing  five  thousand  five  hundred  and  six 
thousand  five  hundred  pounds  respectively.  The  cars 
bearing  the  moulds  are  moved  along  slowly  by  hydraulic 
power  while  the  pouring  is  going  on.  This  and  all  the 
other  operations  in  the  converter-house  are  controlled  by 
P 


230  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

levers  from  a  "  pulpit"  that  stands  within  view  of  all  the 
mechanism. 

The  ingots  go  to  the  heating-pits,  where  there  are  two 
furnaces,  each  with  six  pits,  and  each  pit  having  a  capacity 
of  four  ingots.  The  pit  covers  open  as  if  by  magic,  but 
really  by  means  of  hydraulic  cylinders.  Arrangements 
of  air- valves  are  provided  for  each  pit  so  that  high  or  low 
carbon  steels  can  each  be  heated  to  the  proper  temperature 
in  adjoining  pits.  Overhead  travelling-cranes  of  fifty-two 
feet  span  serve  to  handle  the  heavy  ingots,  lowering  and 
raising  them  as  desired.  The  power  used  in  gripping  is 
compressed  air,  the  compresser  itself  being  run  by  an  elec- 
tric motor.  The  longitudinal  and  lateral  movements  of 
the  crane  are  performed  directly  by  the  electric  motor. 

From  the  heating-pits  the  cars  are  run  to  the  blooming- 
mill  table.  For  the  benefit  of  those  who  are  unfamiliar 
with  the  language  of  steel-making,  it  should  be  stated  that 
a  blooming-mill  is  the  first  set  of  rolls  through  which  the 
metal '  is  rolled,  after  which  it  is  relieved  of  slag,  made 
malleable^  and  is  called  a  bloom.  The  mill  shown  in  the 
illustration  is  of  thirty-eight-inch  size,  and  contains  in  its 
framework  some  of  the  largest  castings  in  the  world.  A 
special  train  had  to  be  devised  for  bringing  six  of  these 
castings  from  Pittsburg,  where  they  were  made.  Two  of 
them  weighed  sixty-eight  thousand  pounds  each,  two  sixty 
thousand  each,  and  two  forty-eight  thousand  each. 

This  big  blooming-mill  requires  the  services  of  a  ten 
thousand  horse-power  engine,  which  is  directly  coupled  to 
one  of  its  shafts.  Smaller  engines  are  used  to  work  the 
rolls  that  lead  up  to  the  squeezing  rolls  of  the  train.  An 
hydraulic  manipulator,  consisting  of  two  jaws,  is  used  to 
handle  the  hot  billets.  The  engine  and  blooming-mill  are 
both  operated  by  levers  from  one  platform  by  two  men. 


THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  STEEL.  233 

Such  perfect  arrangement  and  almost  entire  abolition  of 
hand-labor  are  the  secrets  of  the  improvements  in  steel- 
making.  Adjoining  the  blooming-mill  is  an  hydraulic 
shear  for  reducing  the  blooms  to  the  desired  length.  It 
makes  nothing  of  shearing  a  seven  by  nine  piece  of  steel. 
From  this  shear  the  blooms  are  rolled  along  on  one  of  two 
tracks  by  hydraulic  power.  Defective  blooms  are  swung 
by  a  jib-crane  to  a  steam-hammer  for  chipping.  The  rail- 
blooms,  as  they  come  from  the  shears,  are  taken  to  re- 
heating furnaces,  of  which  there  are  three  with  fourteen- 
by- thirty- foot  hearths  and  eight  working-doors  on  each 
side.  Both  the  charging  and  delivery  are  controlled  by 
electric  overhead  cranes,  and  the  bloom-tongs  are  also 
electrically  controlled. 

The  rail  mill  is  something  of  a  novelty.  In  the  centre 
stand  the  roll-trains,  and  on  either  side  are  carriages  moving 
at  right  angles  to  the  train  over  a  row  of  live  rotating  rollers. 
There  are  three  of  these  carriages  on  each  side  of  the  train. 
They  assist  in  passing  the  blooms  back  and  forth  through 
the  first  set  of  rolls,  called  the  roughing  rolls  ;  then  the  car- 
riage and  rails  are  conveyed  bodily  by  geared  cross-tracks, 
or  racks,  to  a  position  opposite  the  next  set  of  rolls,  and  so 
on.  All  the  movements  are  carried  out  by  means  of  elec- 
tric motors  mounted  individually  on  each  carriage,  and  all 
is  controlled  by  levers  and  switches  from  two  "  pulpits"  on 
either  side  of  the  train.  The  stands  of  rolls  are  changed 
when  desired  by  means  of  a  forty-ton  electric  crane  of 
forty-eight  feet  span.  Twelve  spare  stands  of  rolls  are 
kept  for  changes,  and  a  stand  can  be  removed  and  another 
put  in  its  place  in  less  than  an  hour. 

Beyond  the  rail -train  extend  the  delivery-tables,  with 
three  steel-saws,  such  as  that  shown  in  the  illustration. 
These  saws  run  at  an  enormous  velocity,  and  sever  the 


234 


WONDERS   OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


rails  by  melting  or  burning.  Here  is  also  a  cambering- 
machine.  At  right  angles  to  the  tables  are  two  series  of 
hot-beds,  to  either  of  which  the  rails  may  be  moved  by  a 
pusher  worked  by  a  wire  rope.  These  hot-beds  will  ac- 

FIG.  53. 


THE  SELLERS  STEEL-SAW. 


commodate  girder-rails  as  long  as  sixty  feet.  The  arrange- 
ment of  the  hot-beds  divides  the  product  of  the  mill  into 
two  parts,  each  of  which  has  its  own  straightening-shed. 
Eight  automatic  rail -straighten  ing  machines  are  employed 
here.  Next  the  rails  go  to  a  finishing-mill,  in  which  the 
ends  of  the  rails  are  milled  off,  drilled,  and  fitted.  They 
are  then  delivered  to  the  cars  for  shipment. 

The  two  boiler-houses  are  supplied  with  coal  by  auto- 
matic contrivances,  so  that  there  is  no  touching  of  the  coal 
by  hand  from  first  to  last.  Electric  elevators  and  con- 


THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  STEEL.  235 

veyors  bring  in  the  coal,  and  it  is  fed  to  the  boilers  by 
Murphy  mechanical  stokers.  Slack  coal  is  used,  at  a  cost 
of  only  ninety  cents  a  ton  delivered,  so  that  the  power  is 
obtained  very  cheaply. 

In  the  manufacture  of  cast  steel  the  progress  of  recent 
years  has  been  as  marked  as  in  that  of  rolled  steel.  Soft- 
steel  castings  for  plate  armor  were  first  made  in  this  coun- 
try about  1886.  The  castings  of  that  period  were  very 
porous,  the  use  of  silicon  for  solidifying  the  steel  being 
then  unknown.  Along  in  1876  hammer-heads  and  dies 
of  moderate  size  were  cast  satisfactorily,  but  large  castings 
were  imperfect,  and  the  moulding-sand  adhered  to  them 
with  great  tenacity.  By  altering  the  moulding  mixture, 
and  washing  the  mould  with  finely-ground  clay  fire-brick, 
a  considerable  improvement  was  obtained.  But  the  change 
in  mixture  was  not  suited  to  complicated  shapes,  because 
it  offered  resistance  to  the  shrinkage,  so  that  there  was  a 
tendency  to  crack.  A  mixture  of  silica  sand  and  flour  was 
then  tried,  with  good  results  in  the  case  of  small  castings. 
The  difficulties  in  the  way  of  good  castings  were  largely 
removed  later  by  the  introduction  of  silicon  in  combination 
with  the  steel,  for  assisting  solidification,  and  by  the  use  of 
a  mixture  of  moulding-sand  consisting  principally  of  silica 
sand  and  molasses  thoroughly  ground  together. 

Steel  castings  are  ordinarily  hard  to  clean,  but  they  yield 
under  the  effective  influence  of  the  sand-blast.  The  ma- 
chine used  for  supplying  the  sand  has  the  appearance  of  a 
vertical  boiler,  fitted  with  the  necessary  mechanism  of  feed- 
valves,  sand  chambers,  etc.,  so  arranged  that  an  air-pressure 
of  about  ten  pounds  per  square  inch  catches  the  sand  and 
delivers  it  through  a  pure  rubber  hose,  which  must  be 
handled  in  such  a  way  as  not  to  kink,  because  a  sharp 
bend  is  always  liable  to  be  cut  by  the  sand.  In  use  this 

20 


236 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


hose  is  turned  on  the  castings  and  sand  poured  out  under 
pressure,  much  as  a  garden  would  be  watered  with  a  hose 
attached  to  a  water-supply. 

While  it  is  now  possible  to  buy  steel  castings  of  excellent 
quality  and  uniformity,  in  order  to  be  sure  of  such  it  is  usu- 
ally necessary  to  patronize  one  foundry  making  a  specialty 
of  small  castings,  and  another  foundry  making  a  specialty 
of  large  castings,  and  perhaps  a  third  making  a  specialty 
of  thin  castings,  such  as  are  used  in  stoves.  The  business 
involves  a  large  amount  of  individual  skill,  and  minor 
conveniences  for  different  grades  of  work. 

FIG.  54. 


THE    MANUFACTURE  OF   STEEL   TRUSSES,   AS    CARRIED    ON    BY    THE   BERLIN    IRON- 
BRIDGE    COMPANY. 

Sir  Henry  Bessemer  has  recently  proposed  an  improved 
method  of  making  thin  steel  plates  direct  from  the  fluid 
metal,  instead  of  casting  into  ingots  and  rolling  down  as 
is  now  done.  His  plan  is  to  allow  the  metal  to  flow  from 
a  reservoir,  in  small  streams  of  regulatable  size,  between 


MACHINE   TOOLS.  237 

two  large  rollers,  which  rotate  slowly  so  as  to  chill  the 
metal,  at  the  same  time  drawing  it  in  so  that  it  passes  out 
as  a  thin  sheet  of  steel,  and  is  led  away  by  curved  guides 
between  other  and  smaller  rolls  that  steady  it  so  that  it  can 
be  sheared  off  at  desired  lengths  and  piled  up  in  a  stack. 
With  such  an  apparatus,  Mr.  Bessemer  thinks  that  he  could 
make  a  ton  of  plates  the  twentieth  of  an  inch  in  thickness 
in  seven  and  a  half  minutes.  If  this  process  proves  to  be 
the  same  in  practice  as  in  theory,  the  manufacture  of  steel 
plates  of  less  than  an  inch  in  thickness  will  be  revolution- 
ized. 


MACHINE   TOOLS. 

The  Ingenious  Machinery  that  has  been  devised  for  building  other 
Machines  and  manufacturing  Material  for  Metal  Structures. 

THE  cheap  and  rapid  production  of  machinery  of  all 
kinds  possible  by  modern  methods  has  only  been  attained 
by  the  development  of  machine  tools  or — to  state  it  more 
clearly — special  machines,  whose  office  is  to  assist  in  the 
making  of  other  machines  and  structures  required  in  the 
various  industries  of  the  world. 

One  of  the  commonest  operations  in  the  making  of 
machinery  is  the  forming  of  a  hole  for  some  purpose,  as  for 
admitting  bolts  or  rivets  to  bind  the  parts  together.  Such 
holes  in  metal-work  are  formed  in  four  different  ways.  If 
in  a  casting,  they  may  be  formed  conveniently  in  the  mould, 
if  over  one  inch  in  diameter  and  so  situated  as  not  to  entail 
any  serious  difficulties  in  drawing  the  patterns  from  the 
moulding-sand.  If  in  wrought  iron,  steel,  etc.,  they  may 
be  punched,  provided  the  plates  are  not  over  an  inch  and 


238  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

a  half  thick  or  the  holes  more  than  four  inches  in  diameter 
or  thereabouts,  and  provided  further  that  great  accuracy 
as  to  the  form  of  hole  is  not  requisite.  For  the  majority 
of  small  holes,  however,  the  drilling  machine  is  required, 
and  for  large  holes  the  boring-mill.  The  unsophisticated 
may  inquire  what  is  the  difference  between  drilling  and 
boring  a  hole.  In  common  language  the  two  words  are 
used  interchangeably,  but  among  machinists  to  drill  is  to 
cut  a  small  hole  out  of  solid  metal  with  a  tool  that  rotates 
about  its  centre,  while  to  bore  is  to  shape  a  large  hole  by 
means  of  a  cutter  that  may  be  set  out  of  centre  and  will 
shape  a  hole  of  the  diameter  of  its  rotary  motion.  In  other 
words,  a  drill  turns  in  the  middle  of  a  hole,  cutting  all  sides 
at  once,  and  cannot  be  used  for  large  holes  because  it  would 
require  too  much  power,  while  a  boring- bar  will  carry  a  tool 
that  will  travel  around  the  edge  of  a  large  hole,  taking  off 
a  chip  or  shaving  that  requires  little  power. 

The  every-day  drill-press  is  a  convenient  tool,  to  be 
found  in  all  machine-shops,  but  as  it  bores  only  one  hole 
at  a  time,  and  usually  has  a  hand-feed  to  avoid  danger  of 
breaking  the  drills,  its  operation  is  too  slow  to  admit  of 
some  mechanisms  being  produced  at  low  cost.  To  reduce 
cost  of  the  manufactured  product  there  have  been  intro- 
duced a  variety  of  multiple  drills  that  will  form  a  large 
number  of  holes  at  one  operation.  There  are  two-spindle 
and  three-spindle  rail-drilling  machines,  for  making  the 
holes  by  which  railway  rails  are  connected  through  the 
medium  of  fish-plates.  Four-,  six-,  and  eight-spindle 
machines  are  made  for  use  in  boring  holes  in  rows,  at 
spaced  distances,  a  very  common  requirement.  One  of 
these  is  the  Niles  multiple  drill  shown  in  Fig.  55.  This 
has  six  spindles,  three  of  which  are  driven  from  one  end 
and  three  from  the  other  end,  by  the  cone-pulleys,  securing 


- 


MACHINE   TOOLS.  241 

more  power  than  could  be  had  if  they  were  all  driven  from 
one  pulley.  The  table  is  provided  with  water-trough  and 
power-pump  for  keeping  a  continuous  supply  of  lubri- 
cant on  the  work  during  drilling.  This  arrangement  of 
drills  is  of  great  advantage  when  holes  of  different  size 
and  depth  are  to  be  drilled  at  the  same  time  in  the  same  or 
different  pieces.  A  somewhat  similar  machine  is  made 
with  three  spindles  for  either  drilling  or  tapping  holes. 
Tapping  is  the  cutting  of  an  internal  thread  in  a  hole  so 
that  it  may  receive  a  screw.  Another  form  of  multiple 
drill  has  a  circular  table  for  the  work,  and  as  many  as 
twenty-two  drill-spindles  above  it,  so  that  numerous  holes 
of  odd  or  irregular  arrangement  may  be  drilled  at  one  time. 
The  drills  are  arranged  in  two  groups,  one  group  having  a 
faster  speed  than  the  other  for  use  in  bo  ring  smaller  holes 
or  in  softer  metal. 

William  Sellers  &  Co.  build  universal  drilling  machines 
arranged  so  as  to  drill  the  hole  in  any  required  direction. 
Large  work  can  be  run  alongside  and  drilled  with  great 
facility.  The  same  firm  build  a  radial  drilling  machine 
that  has  a  radial  arm  for  the  drill,  and  will  make  a  hole 
anywhere  within  a  radius  of  eighty -three  inches.  In  these 
machines  the  arm  is  hinged  to  a  saddle  carried  upon  the 
face  of  a  rectangular  column  or  upright.  It  is  easily 
rotated  by  hand,  and  is  raised  and  lowered  by  power  by 
means  of  a  hand-lever.  The  arm  is  thus  quickly  adjusted 
to  the  proper  height  to  suit  the  work,  and,  as  the  saddle 
that  carries  the  tool  is  so  fitted  and  is  of  such  length  as  not 
to  require  any  clamping  to  place,  this  adjustment  of  height 
is  rendered  extremely  simple. 

A  variety  of  horizontal  drilling  machines  are  made  that 
resemble  in  general  appearance  a  lathe,  but  have  no  dead 
centre. 

20* 


242  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

Boring  machines  are  made  of  both  horizontal  and  ver- 
tical form,  the  most  familiar  type  being  the  upright  boring- 
and  turning-mill  shown  in  Fig.  56.  In  this  style  there  are 
three  saddles  for  bearing  the  boring-tools.  The  housings, 
or  large  upright  members,  may  be  moved  forward  or  back 
according  to  convenience,  being  retained  in  the  forward 
position  for  small  work  and  run  back  when  in  the  way  of 
larger  work.  The  circular  table  in  front  is  arranged  so 
that  it  will  rotate  the  work,  and  has  large  radial  slots  for 
bolting  the  work  on  solidly.  Horizontal  boring-mills  are 
also  made  that  are  adjustable  to  the  work,  and  convenient 
where  very  heavy  castings  are  to  be  bored. 

Punching  machines  usually  resemble  a  very  thick-set 
full-face  capital  G>  this  form  giving  the  strength  which  is 
required  between  the  opposed  sides  and  permitting  the 
piece  punched  to  pass  between  the  jaws.  They  are  pon- 
derous and  weighty.  The  largest  sizes  will  exert  a  punch- 
ing force  of  half  a  million  pounds,  with  an  overreach  of 
four  feet — that  is,  with  the  punch  at  a  distance  of  four  feet 
from  the  backbone  of  the  machine.  Shearing  machines 
are  frequently  combined  with  punching  machines,  the 
general  construction  being  the  same.  The  shearing  is 
done  by  flat,  hardened  surfaces  of  steel  that  slide  past 
each  other  much  like  the  blades  of  a  pair  of  scissors. 
For  punching  fish-plates,  angle-irons,  or  other  work  not 
of  very  heavy  character,  multiple  punching  machines  are 
manufactured,  some  of  which  make  as  many  as  six  holes 
at  once.  Punching  is  much  cheaper  than  drilling,  since  it 
can  be  accomplished  more  quickly,  but  as  it  tends  to 
weaken  the  material  in  a  slight  degree  it  is  not  always 
preferred.  Shearing  machines  for  trimming  the  edges  of 
iron  plates  are  made  of  a  strength  and  capacity  sufficient 
to  take  off  an  edge  sixty  inches  long  and  an  inch  thick. 


MACHINE   TOOLS. 


245 


FIG.  57. 


STKAM-KIVKTKK. 


These    are    principally   used   by   bridge-builders    and    in 
shearing  the  metal  plating  for  iron  or  steel  ships. 

Riveting  requires  much  less  strength  on  the  part  of  a 
machine  than  do  punching  and  shearing,  yet  the  steam- 
riveter  shown  here  is  a  very  heavy 
machine,  of  William  Sellers  &  Co.'s 
make,  and  presents  a  six-foot  gap 
for  the  work.  It  operates  by  press- 
ure, and  not  by  hammering.  The 
result  is  preferable  to  riveting  ac- 
complished by  a  succession  of  blows 
on  the  head  of  the  rivet,  because  in 
the  squeezed  rivet  the  shank  is  up- 
set so  as  to  fill  the  hole  completely 
before  forming  a  head,  and  the  parts 
that  are  being  riveted  are  brought 
into  close  and  firm  contact ;  but  in 
hammering,  either  by  hand  or  power,  the  head  is  formed 
without  necessarily  upsetting  the  shank  throughout  its 
length,  and  the  rivet  is  almost  certain  to  be  loose  in  some 
parts  of  the  hole,  especially  if  the  punching  does  not 
match  exactly,  and  the  plates  are  not  clamped  together 
with  the  same  solidity  as  where  pressure  is  used.  Hy- 
draulic riveters  are  also  made,  which  operate  by  pressure 
and  do  excellent  work.  They  are  of  practically  the  same 
pattern  as  the  riveter  shown  here,  but  water  instead  of 
steam  is  used  to  force  in  the  pressure-cylinder.  Some  of 
them  are  made  with  an  auxiliary  cylinder  for  tightly 
clamping  the  plates  so  that  their  surfaces  are  brought 
rigidly  together,  a  necessary  thing  in  boiler-making  or  the 
like.  Riveters  are  made  as  large  as  sixteen  feet  betwreen 
the  jaws — that  is,  of  a  size  to  fasten  a  rivet  in  the  centre 
of  a  plate  thirty-two  feet  square. 


,246  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

The  wheel-press  is  a  modern  special  machine  that  has 
attained  a  wide  field.  It  is  designed  for  pressing  on 
or  off  a  wheel — as  of  a  locomotive — from  its  axle.  It  is 
often  operated  by  hydraulic  power.  The  operation  is 
easily  understood.  The  axle  is  swung  into  proper  posi- 
tion by  central  hooks,  one  end  resting  in  a  resistance-post. 
If  a  wheel  is  to  be  put  on  it  is  then  crowded  between  the 
cylinder  and  the  axle,  and  the  pressure  of  the  \vater  in  the 
hydraulic  cylinder  exerted  to  force  it  on.  A  pressure  of 
about  thirty  tons  is  required  to  put  on  a  car-wheel  suffi- 
ciently tight  to  insure  its  never  coming  off  by  accident.  A 
much  greater  force  has  to  be  exerted  at  times  to  remove  it, 
and  therefore  the  larger  sizes  of  these  machines  are  given  a 
capacity  of  two  hundred  tons. 

Though  the  above  description  does  not  by  any  means 
cover  the  extent  of  machines  that  have  to  do  with  hole- 
forming,  yet  it  may  serve  to  give  the  reader  who  is  not 
informed  on  the  subject  some  idea  of  the  general  methods 
employed  in  this  department  of  machine-construction  in 
the  largest  and  best  shops  in  the  United  States,  which  is 
equivalent  to  saying  "  in  the  world,"  for  in  no  other 
country  has  machine-construction  attained  as  high  a  devel- 
opment as  in  our  own. 

Machine  tools  for  shaping  and  forming  are  most  varied 
in  their  construction,  including  the  indispensable  lathe, 
planing  and  stamping  machines,  bending-rolls,  slotting, 
gear-cutting,  grinding,  and  numberless  other  mechanisms. 
It  is  believed  that  the  first  lathe  made  by  primitive  man  was 
formed  by  tying  a  thong  of  hide  to  a  young  tree,  passing 
it  around  some  piece  fixed  at  both  ends  so  as  to  rotate  when 
the  lower  end  of  the  thong  was  pulled.  By  tying  the  free 
end  of  the  thong  to  his  foot  the  primitive  man  turned  the 
rotating  piece  one  way,  and  by  lifting  up  his  foot  the  spring 


MACHINE   TOOLS.  247 

of  the  young  tree  turned  it  the  other.  Then,  by  pressing 
against  the  rotating  piece  with  a  sharp-edged  stone  it 
could  be  formed  into  circular  shape.  Such  is  the  principle 
involved  in  the  lathes  of  to-day,  but  the  primitive  man 
would  hardly  recognize  any  of  them  as  evolved  from  his 
handiwork. 

A  machinist's  lathe,  as  ordinarily  constructed,  has  a 
frame  with  a  pointed  centre  at  each  end,  between  which 
the  work  to  be  turned  is  hung.  One  centre  rotates,  and 
is  called  the  live  centre,  while  the  other  centre  is  called  the 
dead  centre  because  it  has  no  rotary  motion.  The  mandrel 
of  the  live  centre  is  driven  by  pulleys,  of  graded  speeds, 
and  there  is  usually  a  face-plate  to  which  work  may  be 
attached.  The  cutting-tool  is  mounted  on  a  travelling 
carriage,  so  that  the  workman  can  cause  it  to  pass  back 
and  forth  over  the  surface  of  the  work  and  cut  it  in  almost 
any  circular  or  conic  form. 

Lathes  are  made  in  a  seemingly  endless  variety  of  forms, 
suited  to  special  work.  A  recent  form  is  the  turret-lathe, 
which  has  a  cylinder  set  upright  on  an  axis  so  as  to  slide 
over  the  ways,  the  cylinder  having  several  faces  with  chucks 
or  spindles  for  the  reception  of  drills  or  other  tools,  any 
one  of  which  may  be  presented  in  succession  in  the  axial 
line  of  the  work.  When  a  lathe  is  fitted  with  two  cutting 
tools  operating  at  once  it  is  termed  a  duplex  lathe  ;  if  there 
is  an  abrading  wheel,  it  may  be  called  a  grinding  lathe. 
Many  lathes  are  fitted  for  drilling  or  boring.  Some  are 
provided  with  two  driving-heads,  for  turning  at  a  single 
operation  two  mounted  car- wheels  or  the  like. 

Planing  machines  are  designed  to  reduce  a  level  or  flat 
surface  by  taking  off  continuous  chips  or  shavings  in  paral- 
lel lines.  The  common  form  has  a  bed  that  carries  the 
work  back  and  forth  between  a  heavy  framework,  on  which 


248  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

is  mounted  the  cutting  tool.  Rotary  planers  are  used, 
however,  that  have  twenty-five  to  seventy-five  cutting 
tools  arranged  on  a  powerful  wheel,  mounted  on  a  saddle, 
that  travels  back  and  forth  while  the  work  remains  sta- 
tionary. They  are  much  used  in  shaping  bridge-work. 
For  planing  large  plates  there  is  used  a  type  of  machine 
having  a  long  plate  girder  to  hold  the  tool  to  its  work. 
The  tool  travels  back  and  forth  and  bevels  or  otherwise 
shapes  the  edge  of  the  plate,  being  held  down  to  its  duty 
by  a  stout  clamping-bar.  It  is  used  for  planing  boiler- 
plates, safe-plates,  and  the  like.  Other  plate-planing  ma- 
chines are  made  with  very  stout  carriages,  so  that  they  do 
not  require  a  clamping-bar.  The  Niles  Tool- Works  Com- 
pany also  build  a  gigantic  machine  for  planing  and  slotting 
that  is  mounted  on  a  railway  track  below  the  level  of  the 
floor,  as  shown  in  Fig.  59.  Large  work  may  be  clamped 
to  the  adjoining  floor-plate,  and  is  planed  by  the  travel  of 
the  planer  on  its  railway.  This  powerful  machine  has  a 
bed-length  of  thirty-eight  feet,  and  will  plane  to  a  width 
of  almost  nine  feet.  Its  uprights  are  sixteen  feet  high, 
and  it  is  driven  by  a  long  belt  carried  under  the  ceiling. 

Slotting  machines  are  sometimes  built  like  planers, 
though  the  more  common  form  has  a  tool  that  receives  an 
up-and-down  motion  from  a  crank-wheel.  A  chain  slot- 
ting machine  has  been  recently  introduced  that  has  a  series 
of  cutters  mounted  on  an  endless  chain.  It  is  chiefly 
useful  for  such  wood-work  as  mortising  door-frames.  The 
gear- cutting  machine  is  a  form  of  slotter,  since  it  shapes  the 
cogs  and  spaces.  This  machine  has  been  brought  to  a  high 
degree  of  perfection.  Though  the  teeth  of  a  gear  must  be 
very  accurate  in  form,  and  every  change  in  size  of  the 
wheel  or  in  the  number  of  the  teeth  involves  a  change  in 
the  form  of  each  tooth,  yet  gear-cutting  machines  are 


MACHINE   TOOLS. 


251 


252  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

mostly  automatic,  and  divide  off  the  teeth  and  cut  them 
from  the  solid  metal  blank  with  only  the  most  trifling 
attention.  One  man  can  run  four  of  them  at  a  time.  A 
blank  wheel  being  put  in  place,  and  the  proper  cutter 
adjusted  to  depth  of  teeth,  length  of  stroke  of  cutter-head, 
etc.,  the  cutter  will  pass  across  the  face  of  the  space  between 
teeth,  and  return  at  a  quick  pace  to  the  starting  side  of 
the  wheel,  while  the  blank  is  automatically  shifted  so  as 
to  present  the  next  space  to  be  cut,  and  the  cutter  starts  in 
to  do  its  work  again. 

Milling  machines  are  used  to  finish  and  shape  parts  of 
machines  by  means  of  rotating  cutters.  Shapers  are  really 
small  planing  machines  adapted  for  light  and  rapid  work. 

Stamping  presses  are  used  to  shape  parts  of  wrought 
iron  or  steel.  Many  forming  machines  are  operated  by 
hydraulic  power.  For  stamping  coins  the  approved  form 
is  an  hydraulic  press  with  very  heavy  frame,  and  dies 
between  which  the  coin  or  medal  can  be  pressed  to  form. 
The  Philadelphia  Mint  uses  a  machine  that  exerts  a 
pressure  of  two  million  pounds.  It  consists  of  two  semi- 
circular heads,  separated  by  strong  columns,  and  united  by 
heavy  steel  bands,  between  which  is  a  cross-head  operated 
by  a  large  s,teel  cylinder  in  the  upper  head  and  small  re- 
turn cylinders  in  the  lower  head.  Power  is  supplied  by  a 
direct-acting  plunger-pump,  which  maintains  a  constant 
flow  of  oil  from  an  overhead  tank.  The  movement  of 
the  coining-head  is  controlled  by  a  lever.  The  pressure 
applied  is  determined  by  an  adjustable  safety-valve.  The 
head  is  made  to  move  at  the  rate  of  an  inch  a  minute  when 
under  pressure,  and  three  feet  a  minute  wrhen  coming 
towards  or  from  the  work.  This  same  form  of  press  is 
used  for  punching  and  stripping,  or  may  be  made  to  do  the 
work  of  a  drop-press  or  fly-press. 


MACHINE   TOOLS.  255 

The  bending  of  plates  of  metal  is  accomplished  between 
sets  of  rolls,  which  may  be  adjusted  so  as  to  give  any  curve 
to  the  plate.  Four  rolls  are  commonly  used,  one  pair  being 
larger  than  the  other  two  and  being  used  for  compression 
and  to  carry  the  plate.  '1  he  smaller  rolls  do  the  bending. 
The  machine,  Fig.  60,  is  of  the  largest  size  made  in  this 
country,  and  will  bend  cold  steel  ship-plates  twenty-two 
feet  wide  and  two  inches  thick.  It  was  built  by  the  Niles 
Tool-Works  for  the  Mare  Island  Navy- Yard,  and  weighs 
two  hundred  and  fifty  tons.  It  is  operated  by  independent 
engines,  as  shown,  for  driving  the  rolls  and  adjusting  their 
position.  Two  heavy  pinching-  and  feeding-rolls  are 
thirty-two  inches  in  diameter,  the  bending-rolls  being 
twenty-five  and  a  half  inches  thick.  Graduated  index- 
scales  are  provided  to  show  the  operator  just  how  his  rolls 
are  set.  The  machine  is  designed  to  rest  on  masonry  below 
the  floor  surface,  so  that  the  plates  can  be  run  in  from  the 
level  of  a  low  truck. 

Very  similar  machines  are  made  for  straightening  plates 
of  metal.  In  these  more  rolls  are  used,  ordinarily  seven. 
The  rolls  are  made  of  forged  steel,  and  are  particularly  use- 
ful in  straightening  boiler-plate  or  for  tank-  or  safe-plates. 

For  forging,  trip-hammers  are  used  if  the  work  is  small. 
For  large  forgings  the  steam-hammer  is  the  tool  that  is 
never  likely  to  be  superseded.  It  has  been  considerably 
improved  since  the  days  of  Naysmith,  the  inventor.  There 
are  two  types  of  direct-acting  steam-hammers  now  made, 
— one  in  which  the  weight  of  the  falling  mass  is  concen- 
trated in  a  head,  or  which  works  between  guiding  surfaces, 
and  is  connected  by  a  piston-rod  of  relatively  small  diam- 
eter with  the  steam-piston  in  a  cylinder  situated  above  it. 
The  other  type,  known  as  the  Morrison,  arranges  the  fall- 
ing mass  in  the  form  of  a  heavy  cylindrical  bar,  of  which 
L  q  21 


256 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


the  piston  is  an  integral  part,  and  is  situated  near  the  cen- 
tre of  the  length,  so  that  the  bar  extends  above  the  piston 
and  passes  through  the  upper  cylinder-head.  The  latter, 
style  is  generally  preferred,  as  the  bar  is  better  able  to 
withstand  the  shocks  of  concussion  than  a  piston-rod.  In 
the  smaller  sizes  the  mechanism  is  supported  on  a  single 
bent  column.  In  the  larger  sizes  the  falling-bar  operates 
between  two  stupendous  supports. 

FIG.  61. 


WM.  SELLERS  A  CO.'S  TOOL-GRINDER. 


The  grinding  of  drills  is  very  particular  work,  as,  if  im- 
properly done,  the  holes  made  will  not  be  uniform.     Special 


MINING  AND  MINING-MACHINERY.  257 

machines  have  been  built  to  do  this  work,  and  one  of  them 
is  here  illustrated.  It  is  supplied  with  a  cooling  stream 
of  water,  so  that  it  is  not  necessary  to  draw  the  temper 
from  the  drills. 

Such  are  a  few  of  the  more  important  machines  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  other  machines.  Anything  like  a  com- 
plete description  of  them  would  fill  a  work  several  times 
larger  than  this.  As  a  rule,  these  machines  are  built  bet- 
ter in  America  than  abroad.  Hiram  S.  Maxim,  the  in- 
ventor of  the  Maxim  gun  and  flying-machine,  himself  an 
Englishman,  has  put  himself  on  record  as  saying  that  this 
nation  has  the  best  mechanics  in  the  world,  and  the  man 
who  investigates  some  of  the  large  and  excellently  designed 
machine  tools  of  the  leading  American  makers  is  very  apt 
to  come  to  the  same  conclusion,  whatever  his  nationality. 


MINING   AND    MINING-MACHINERY. 

Hoists,  Drills,  Compressors,  and  Safety  Appliances— The  Deep- 
est Shaft  in  the  World— Methods  of  Mine  Timbering. 

THE  most  important  machine  connected  with  a  mine  is 
the  hoisting-engine,  which  is  usually  a  combined  steam- 
engine  and  hoist.  There  are  two  common  styles.  The 
Pennsylvania  and  Lake  Superior  mines  mostly  use  hoists 
having  very  large  drums,  around  which  is  wound,  in  spiral 
grooves,  the  wire  rope  that  supports  the  cages.  These  are 
directly  connected  with  the  engines,  and  controlled  by 
powerful  brakes,  usually  of  the  band  type,  passing  nearly 
around  the  large  drum,  on  which  they  take  hold  by  fric- 
tion. An  objection  to  this  type  is  that  the  drums  are 
necessarily  heavy,  and  acquire  a  momentum  like  a  fly- 


258  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

wheel,  which  renders  them  hard  to  stop  and  slow  in  start- 
ing. The  other  style,  more  used  in  the  Western  States, 
makes  use  of  a  comparatively  light  reel  and  a  flat  rope, 
arranged  to  wind  over  and  over  on  itself  within  a  small 
space,  so  as  to  avoid  the  fly-wheel  effect  as  far  as  possible. 

FIG.  62. 


^ ,_     i««iUU.|.JttM ->\V^— -¥-**/--*-* 

fx 

A  MINE  REEL-HOISTING  ENGINE. 

In  the  larger  plants  air-brakes  are  made  use  of,  very  simi- 
lar in  construction  to  those  employed  on  railway  trains. 
In  making  calculations  for  mine-hoists  the  length  of  rope 
is  an  important  factor.  A  depth  of  three  thousand  feet 
will  require  a  size  and  weight  of  rope  different  from  that 
in  a  fifteen-hundred -foot  mine,  where  the  hoisting  capacity 
is  to  be  the  same.  For  a  depth  of  two  thousand  five  hun- 
dred feet  the  size  of  flat  steel  rope  required  would  be  five 
by  three-eighths  inches,  with  engine  cylinders  twenty  inches 
long  and  with  sixty  inches  stroke.  For  a  depth  of  six 
hundred  feet  the  rope  would  be  required  to  be  only  half 


MINING  AND  MINING-MACHINERY.  259 

the  size  to  carry  the  same  load,  and  the  engines  of  less 
than  half  the  capacity.  It  is  hard  to  say  what  a  mine- 
cage  usually  weighs,  as  there  is  so  much  variation  in  size. 
Perhaps  twelve  hundred  pounds  would  be  a  lair  average. 
The  shafts  of  deep  mines  are  commonly  small,  four  by 
four  and  a  half  feet  being  a  common  size.  The  ordinary 
cage  is  a  simple  platform  connected  by  two  uprights  with 
a  cross-piece.  There  are  stout  iron  braces,  and  the  sup- 
porting ro|)e  is  so  hung  that  its  breaking  will  release  a 
spring  that  throws  out  clutches,  engaging  the  guides,  and 
preventing  the  fall  of  the  cage. 

Many  other  safety  devices  are  in  use.  One  of  them  is 
the  electrical  chair-indicator,  for  showing  the  engineer  at 
the  surface  the  position  of  the  various  chairs  or  landing- 
dogs  at  the  levels.  These  chairs  are  devices  for  stopping 
and  supporting  a  mine-cage  in  an  upright  shaft  at  a  point 
opposite  a  level,  so  that  men  or  material  may  be  conven- 
iently transferred  from  shaft  to  level,  or  ivce  versa.  It  is 
necessary  that  the  engineer  should  know  when  these  chairs 
are  open  so  that  a  cage  can  go  by,  or  when  they  are  closed 
for  its  reception  at  a  particular  point.  If  he  does  not 
know,  a  collision  may  result.  The  old  way  of  keeping  the 
engineer  informed  was  by  means  of  wires,  bell-cranks,  and 
indicators.  But  as  wires  get  bent,  and  lengthen  and  shorten 
with  changes  in  temperature,  they  were  not  absolutely 
reliable.  Connection  by  electricity  has  been  found  to  be 
more  certain.  That  in  use  at  the  Drum  Lummon  mine 
has  returned  eight  hundred  thousand  indications  to  the 
engineer  without  error  or  failure  in  a  single  case.  The 
indicator  used  with  this  device  shows  the  engineer  just 
where  the  cage  is,  so  that  he  cannot  drop  the  cage  upon  a 
chair  because  he  may  have  happened  to  forget  what  level 
he  is  hoisting  from,  and  if  chairs  are  shifted  carelessly  or 

21* 


260  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

with  malicious  intent  he  is  informed  of  the  fact.  If  a  wire 
should  in  any  manner  become  broken  or  disconnected,  a 
danger  signal  is  hoisted,  and  chance  of  disaster  averted. 

The  mine-levels  are  supplied  with  tracks  of  very  narrow 
gauge,  seventeen  to  thirty-six  inches,  the  commoner  width 
being  eighteen  inches.  Man-power,  mule-power,  steam, 
and  electricity  are  used  as  means  of  propelling  these.  The 
smoke  of  the  steam-locomotive  is  an  annoyance,  of  course  ; 
but  as  blowers  and  air-compressors  are  in  constant  use, 
purifying  and  changing  the  air,  it  does  not  matter  much, 
and  mine-owners  have  been  slow  in  adopting  the  little 
electric  trolley  locomotives  that  have  been  invented  for 
their  use. 

For  the  carrying  of  ores  down  a  mountain-side  to  the 
mill  at  the  foot,  or  for  transporting  material  up  again  to1 
the  mouth  of  the  mine,  wire  tramways  or  aerial  railways 
are  much  used.  They  are  cheaper  to  erect  than  any  other 
form  of  railway  over  a  rough  country,  and  they  carry 
loads  of  half  a  ton  at  a  time  most  economically.  The 
double  rope  system  is  most  in  favor.  The  supports  may 
be  made  of  timber  hewn  on  the  spot,  and  they  are  not 
necessarily  close  together.  Spans  of  a  thousand  feet  have 
been  built  and  operated  successfully.  The  material  car- 
ried up  to  the  mine — "  back  freight,"  as  it  is  called — is 
hauled  up  by  descending  loads  of  ore,  etc.,  so  that  the 
work  on  the  engines  and  the  coal  consumption  are  materi- 
ally lessened,  being  required  only  to  regulate  the  load. 

Shaft  No.  3,  of  the  Tamarack  copper  mine,  in  the  Lake 
Superior  mining  district,  State  of  Michigan,  is  believed  to 
be  the  deepest  in  the  world.  In  August,  1894,  it  reached 
a  depth  of  four  thousand  two  hundred  feet,  and  it  is  de- 
signed to  carry  it  down  below  the  mile  limit  in  1896. 
There  are  two  other  shafts  belonging  to  this  mine,  each  of 


MINING  AND  MINING-MACHINERY.  261 

which  is  over  three  thousand  feet,  and  a  fourth  shaft  is 
designed  eventually  to  go  deeper  than  Shaft  No.  3.  The 
first  shaft  of  this  mine  was  sunk  on  faith  to  a  depth  of 
two  thousand  two  hundred  and  seventy  feet,  or  nearly  half 
a  mile,  before  the  expected  lode  was  struck.  It  is  located 
near  the  famous  Calumet  and  Hecla  mine,  where  the  vein 
of  ore  is  remarkably  rich  and  wide,  and  of  regular  dip. 
It  was  calculated  that,  if  this  vein  held  its  course,  the  pro- 
jectors of  the  Tamarack  mine  would  strike  it  at  two  thou- 
sand two  hundred  and  fifty  feet.  They  took  the  chances 
and  sunk  a  shaft,  not  a  bored  hole  put  down  to  test  the 
presence  of  copper  below,  but  a  full-sized  mine-shaft,  suit- 
able for  a  large  business.  The  vein  proved  straight,  and 
was  struck  within  twenty  feet  of  the  point  calculated  upon. 
,  The  shafts  are  sunk  vertically  until  they  reach  the  vein 
of  copper  ore,  at  which  point  they  are  inclined  to  follow 
the  vein.  The  trip  down  No.  3  shaft  occupies  almost  five 
minutes,  and  is  accomplished  in  a  cage  hung  from  a  drum- 
hoist.  When  there  are  no  men  in  the  cage  the  speed  is 
doubled,  as  fast  working  is  necessary  to  get  up  the  ore. 
The  miners  below  drill  the  rock  with  compressed  air  drills, 
the  air  being  forced  down  through  three-quarters  of  a  mile 
of  tubing  by  means  of  compressors.  When  a  sufficient 
number  of  holes  are  drilled  a  blast  is  made,  and,  as  soon 
as  the  gases  dissipate,  men  are  set  to  work  gathering  the 
ore  into  the  cars,  while  another  gang  goes  on  drilling. 
Shaft  No.  3  was  sunk  first  through  fifteen  feet  of  drift, 
then  a  hundred  feet  or  more  of  trap-rock,  then  through 
several  seams  of  amygdaloid  rock,  which  is  full  of  small 
cavities.  In  many  mines  these  cavities  are  more  or  less 
filled  with  pure  metal,  but  here  there  is  no  copper  until 
the  conglomerate  vein,  composed  of  fragments  of  pre- 
existing rocks,  is  struck.  The  ore  hoisted  from  the 


262 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


shafts  is  carried  seventy-five  feet  above  the  surface,  to 
concentration  works,  where  it  passes  through  a  series  of 
crushers,  etc.  For  a  description  of  these  see  the  chapter 
on  ore-crushing  machinery. 


FIG.  63. 


ROCK-DRILLING. 


The  timbering  of  mines  constitutes  an  important  part 
of  mine-engineering.  It  is  especially  difficult  in  "  swell- 
ing ground,"  as  the  miners  term  it,  that  tends  to  bulge 
into  the  shafts,  or  in  loose,  watery  ground,  or  in  quick- 
sand. There  are  cases  where  mines  have  been  abandoned 
as  unprofitable  because  of  these  annoyances.  The  shafts 


MINING  AND  MINING-MACHINERY.  263 

on  the  Comstock,  and  in  Calaveras  and  Amador  Counties, 
California,  also  at  Leadville,  Colorado,  were  difficult  in 
the  extreme,  and  reflect  great  credit  on  the  engineers. 
The  size  of  timbering  in  shafts  varies  all  the  way  from 
eight  by  eight  to  twenty  by  twenty-four,  or  even  larger. 
Inclined  shafts  require  heavier  timbers  than  vertical  shafts, 
as  they  have  to  support  a  part  of  the  weight  as  well  as  the 
thrust  of  the  ground.  Very  stout  wall-plates  are  used, 
and  joints  are  made  by  mortising.  Pumping  and  man- 
way  compartments  do  not  require  lining  as  a  rule,  but 
hoisting  compartments,  where  cages  are  run,  should  be 
lined  throughout  to  prevent  accidents  to  the  men,  who 
sometimes,  through  crowding  or  carelessness,  lean  beyond 
the  limits  of  the  cage.  All  shafts  are  or  should  be  pro- 
vided with  ladder-ways  for  use  in  case  of  accident  to  the 
hoisting  mechanism. 

In  sinking  large  shafts  it  is  sometimes  necessary,  if  the 
ground  is  wet  or  soft,  to  drive  lagging  or  planks  ahead  by 
the  system  called  forepoling.  This  has  the  double  ad- 
vantage of  retaining  the  sides  in  good  shape  and  of  keep- 
ing the  ground  in  which  the  work  is  done  better  than  it 
otherwise  would  be,  as  the  planks  confine  the  water. 
Thus  the  ground  is  more  easily  worked.  In  practice  it  is 
found  better  to  keep  one  side  several  feet  in  advance  of 
the  other. 

Where  the  ground  is  very  loose  and  shifting  it  some- 
times becomes  necessary  to  make  use  of  iron  caissons  to 
maintain  the  work.  In  watery  ground  a  double  thickness 
of  planks  with  a  lining  of  two  or  more  inches  of  clay  be- 
tween is  sometimes  satisfactory.  This  is  arranged  in  box 
form  something  like  a  caisson.  Within  a  few  years  a  pat- 
ented process  has  come  into  use  for  freezing  the  ground  at 
such  points  until  the  work  has  been  carried  by.  The  air- 


264  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

compressors  of  a  mining  plant  form  a  convenient  means 
of  supplying  a  temporary  refrigeration  at  any  desired 
point,  as  will  be  understood  by  any  one  reading  the  chap- 
ter on  ice-making  machinery,  where  the  principle  of  arti- 
ficial cold  is  explained. 

Mine-shafts  are  now  almost  invariably  made  rectangular 
in  section.  L  forms  are  not  in  favor,  and  circular  ones 
have  gone  out  of  date.  Of  course  the  circular  form  is 
well  calculated  to  sustain  itself,  but  the  rectangular  is 
much  more  convenient  for  the  arrangement  of  compart- 
ments, guides,  etc. 

In  shafts  it  is  very  necessary  that  the  upright  timbers 
of  the  guides  for  the  cage  should  be  very  neatly  joined,  so 
that  there  may  be  no  jamming  or  danger  from  warping. 
Such  joints  are  best  made  by  means  of  a  tongue  and  groove 
fastened  with  log-bolts,  though  lap-joints  are  much  used. 

The  principle  to  be  borne  in  mind  in  mine-timbering  is 
that  heavy  beams  should  be  set  continuously  in  rectangu- 
lar form.  If  we  have  an  inclined  shaft  six  feet  wide,  the 
cross  timbers  are  best  placed  at  six-foot  distances,  the  tim- 
bering forming  the  outlines  of  a  succession  of  cubes.  Tim- 
ber is  usually  squared  before  coming  into  the  mine,  but 
occasionally  round  timber  has  been  preferred,  as  at  the 
Utica-Stickles  mine,  Calaveras  County,  California.  Here 
the  gold-bearing  rock  is  forty  to  a  hundred  feet  wide,  and 
about  four  hundred  feet  high,  necessitating  its  being  stoped 
— that  is,  worked  by  steps.  The  round  timbers  are  all 
cut  into  eight-foot  lengths,  and  set  up  staircase-fashion  as 
the  work  progresses.  The  management  buy  the  thickest 
timbers  they  can  get,  with  the  result  that  they  weigh  all 
the  way  from  seven  hundred  pounds  to  ten  or  twelve  hun- 
dred, and  in  a  few  cases  sixteen  hundred  pounds.  The 
handling  of  these  becomes  quite  a  business.  They  are 


ORE-CONCENTRATING  MACHINERY.  265 

usually  lashed  together,  and  sent  down  the  shaft  in  or 
attached  to  a  stout  iron  bucket  called  a  skip,  and  at  the 
levels  are  transferred  to  small  flat-cars,  called  trolleys, 
specially  built  for  hauling  them.  Two  men  and  a  lot  of 
eight-foot  chains  constitute  an  equipment  for  sending  down 
the  timbers.  These  chains  bear  hooks  and  rings,  and  with 
them  the  timbers  are  securely  fastened  in  the  skip.  At 
the  Utica  mine,  however,  they  hang  them  below  the  skip, 
and  thus  are  able  to  make  quicker  work  of  it;  but  this 
method  cannot  be  used  where  the  shaft  departs  much  from 
the  vertical.  Winzes,  or  minor  upright  passages  connect- 
ing levels,  are  very  convenient  in  handling  timbers,  afford- 
ing opportunities  for  lowering  them  at  convenient  points. 

At  the  diamond  mines  of  South  Africa  suitable  timber 
is  not  obtainable,  and  it  is  imported  all  the  way  from  the 
Baltic  Sea,  or  sometimes  from  California.  This  is  ex|x?n- 
sive,  but  as  they  occasionally  find  down  there  diamonds 
of  three  or  four  hundred  carats,  the  stockholders  can  afford 
to  pay  big  freight  charges  on  timber. 


ORE-CONCENTRATING   MACHINERY. 

The  Mechanisms  in   Present  Use  for  removing  the  Less  Valu- 
able Portions  of  Ore,  with  some  Hints  as  to 
Gold  and  Silver  Milling. 

ORE  comes  from  the  mine  in  all  shapes  and  sizes,  just 
as  it  happens  to  be  broken  up,  and  the  first  process  in  its 
treatment  is  to  render  it  more  uniformly  fine.  For  this 
purpose  it  is  dumped  on  a  great  screen  of  iron  bars,  called 
a  grizzly,  the  bars  being  so  inclined  that  the  coarse  ma- 
terial is  slid  off  to  a  crusher,  while  that  which  is  already 


266  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM, 

sufficiently  fine  falls  through  into  a  bin,  which  later  re- 
ceives the  ore  from  the  crusher.  One  of  the  best  known 
forms  of  crusher  is  the  Blake,  which  has  moving  jaws  of 
enormous  strength,  that  open  and  close  with  a  motion  that 
lets  down  a  little  rock  at  a  time,  and  drops  it  through  as 
soon  as  it  is  sufficiently  small.  When  set  to  crush  not  over 
an  inch  and  a  half  in  size,  a  large  crusher  will  dispose  of 
about  seven  cubic  yards  of  rock  per  hour.  The  Dodge 
crusher  is  a  very  similar  machine,  but  is  suited  to  finer 
crushing.  It  is  especially  adapted  to  preparing  ores  for 
the  Huntington  mill,  which  is  described  farther  on.  Gy- 
ratory crushers  are  also  made,  of  which  the  Comet  crusher 
is  the  best  known.  It  is  serviceable  where  large  capacity 
is  desired  in  a  particular  place,  and  has  been  installed  in 
the  famous  De  Beers  South  African  diamond  mines  and 
also  in  some  gold  mines. 

If  the  ore  handled  is  gold  and  is  to  be  treated  by  a  wet 
milling  process,  it  goes  from  the  crusher-bin  to  an  auto- 
matic feeder  to  be  fed  directly  to  the  stamps,  etc.  The 
Tulloch  automatic  ore-feeder  is  a  common  form,  consisting 
of  a  hopper-like  box,  below  which  is  an  oscillating  tray 
of  wrought  iron.  The  back  of  the  hopper  has  an  adjust- 
able scraper,  and  at  each  motion  of  the  tray  a  portion  of 
the  ore  is  scraped  forward  to  the  stamp-battery.  The 
Challenge  ore-feeder  is  especially  adapted  to  wet  ores.  It 
has  a  circular  bottom-plate,  set  at  an  angle  so  as  to  bring 
down  the  ore  as  it  rotates. 

If  the  ore  handled  is  silver,  and  it  is  to  be  treated  by 
the  dry  process  or  by  roasting,  a  revolving  dryer  is  placed 
below  the  crusher,  so  that  it  may  be  thoroughly  dried  be- 
fore being  subjected  to  a  finer  crushing. 

The  ore-stamp  as  commonly  made  is  a  very  simple  ma- 
chine, consisting  of  a  heavy  upright  rod,  with  a  stamp  or 


ORE-CONCENTRATING  MACHINERY.  267 

FIG.  64. 


A  STEAM-STAMP. 

22 


268  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

pounder  on  the  lower  end,  and  a  projection  by  which  it 
may  be  raised  by  a  cam  on  a  rotating  shaft,  so  as  to  fall 
by  gravity.  They  are  set  up  five  or  ten  in  a  frame,  and 
often  a  whole  row  of  frames,  together  constituting  a  stamp- 
battery.  This  primitive  mechanism  is  giving  way  rap- 
idly to  the  steam-stamp,  which  is  designed  somewhat  after 
the  manner  of  a  steam-hammer.  This  machine  is  pyrami- 
dal in  form,  having  four  principal  columns  that  meet  in  a 
ring  at  the  top  and  rest  in  heavy  cast-iron  sills  at  the  base. 
Surmounting  the  top  ring  is  a  steam-cylinder  set  vertically, 
so  that  the  descending  piston  can  be  used  to  raise  and  lower 
the  powerful  stamp.  Within  the  four  columns,  at  the 
base,  is  a  large  mortar,  resting  on  a  heavy  cast-iron  bed- 
plate or  anvil  twenty  inches  in  thickness,  and  weighing 
about  eleven  tons,  this  in  turn  being  supported  by  a  row 
of  stout  wooden  sills,  designed  to  spring  when  the  blow  is 
delivered.  Between  the  anvil  and  the  springy  timber  is  a 
rubber  cushion  an  inch  thick,  which  assists  further  in  re- 
ducing the  jar.  The  piston  of  the  cylinder  and  the  stamp- 
stem  are  connected  by  a  disk,  and  between  the  two,  in  the 
junction  piece,  is  another  piece  of  rubber  to  prevent  too 
great  jar  of  the  steam-cylinder.  Ore  and  water  are  fed  in 
at  the  top  of  the  mortar,  the  water  being  continually  thrown 
against  the  sides  of  the  stamp-stem  to  keep  it  from  being 
scored  and  cut  to  pieces  by  the  sharp  sand.  The  largest 
size  of  these  stamps  has  a  stroke  of  thirty  inches,  and  its 
capacity  is  about  one  hundred  and  fifty  tons  of  fine  crush- 
ing per  day  of  twenty-four  hours,  or  two  hundred  and 
thirty  tons  of  coarse  crushing  in  the  same  time.  This 
enormous  machine  stands  about  thirty  feet  high,  and  weighs 
seventy  tons.  It  will  do  the  work  of  about  seventy-five 
of  the  old-fashioned  stamps. 

The  old  stamp-battery  continues  to  have  its  adherents 


ORE-CONCENTRATINO  MACHINERY.  269 

for  fine  crushing,  and  in  some  cases  fast-running  rolls  are 
preferred  in  place  of  stamps,  but  this  depends  upon  a  par- 
ticular ore,  as  upon  an  extremely  hard  ore  the  wear  and 
tear  upon  the  rollers  is  liable  to  prove  expensive,  and  the 
additional  machinery  required  by  fine  crushing  dry  with 
rolls  adds  to  the  exj>ense  of  erection  and  running,  and  also 
the  wear  and  tear.  With  these  rolls  a  system  of  revolving 
screens  is  generally  used,  and  various  elevators  to  turn  the 
material  back  to  the  rolls  for  recrushing,  and  usually  it  is 
necessary  to  maintain  several  sizes  of  rolls. 

Crushing  rolls  are  employed  on  either  wet  or  dry  ore, 
where  it  is  desired  to  granulate  the  material  and  avoid  the 
pulverizing  action  of  stamps  that  produces  slimes.  The 
common  form  is  known  as  the  Cornish  geared  crushing- 
rolls,  and  consists  of  a  pair  of  heavy  iron  rollers,  as  much 
as  eighteen  inches  in  diameter  in  the  larger  sizes,  and  ro- 
tating oppositely  to  draw  in  the  ore.  One  roll  is  set  in 
spring  bearings  to  avoid  danger  of  breakage  if  the  pressure 
rises  above  a  certain  point.  Removable  steel  faces  are 
used  on  the  rolls  that  can  be  replaced  when  they  are  worn 
out.  -During  recent  years  they  have  been  improved  in 
construction,  so  that  they  do  faster  work,  and  a  complete 
machine  has  an  automatic  feeder  that  carries  the  ore  regu- 
larly across  its  face.  For  certain  classes  of  work  there 
has  been  a  demand  of  late  for  the  belt- driven  class  of  rolls, 
operating  entirely  without  geared  connections  between  the 
crushing  shafts,  which  are  independently  driven  by  belts 
run  on  large  pulleys.  The  speed  is  higher,  and  the  belts 
do  not  wear  out  as  fast  as  the  gears,  which  are  subject  to 
severe  friction. 

Under  some  circumstances  complete  pulverization  of  the 
ore  is  desired,  and  for  this  purpose  no  machine  has  been 
as  successful  as  the  Huntington  mill.  This  makes  use  of 


270 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


upright  rolls,  having  an  oiled  bearing  above,  away  from 
the  grit  and  slime,  and  no  bearings  at  all  below,  as  the 
rolls  run  around  on  a  horizontal  steel  tire.  This  arrange- 
ment gives  the  mill  great  wearing  qualities,  not  possible 
in  any  mill  where  the  slimes  have  a  chance  to  work  into 
the  bearing.  The  accompanying  illustration  shows  the 

FIG.  65. 


THE  HUNTINGTON  MILL. 


operation  of  the  Huntington  mill,  as  built  by  Fraser  & 
Chalmers.  The  ore  and  water  are  both  received  at  the 
hopper  on  the  right.  The  rotating  rolls,  7  and  9,  throw 
the  ore  against  the  ring-die  1,  being  kept  to  their  work  of 
crushing  by  the  centrifugal  force.  Complete  pulverization 


ORE-CONCENTRATING  MACHINERY.  271 

can  be  obtained.  •  It  will  be  observed  that  the  only  oiled 
bearings  are  on  the  three  shafts,  set  in  the  upper  frame. 
The  lower  surface  and  the  weight  of  the  rolls  all  assist 
in  the  pulverization,  giving  most  economical  results.  The 
ends  of  a  screen  are  shown  in  the  part  broken  away,  and 
through  this  the  water  and  pulverized  ore  find  exit,  no 
ore  being  permitted  to  esca}>e  until  of  the  required  fineness 
of  the  screen.  The  discharge  is  so  perfect  that  very  little 
slime  results,  the  pulp  being  in  good  condition  for  concen- 
tration. 

One  more  crushing  machine  should  be  mentioned  before 
closing  the  subject.  It  is  the  Sturtevant  mill,  which  has 
been  borrowed  from  the  cement-makers.  It  has  been 
found  very  useful  for  coarse  crushing,  and  has  a  peculiar 
action.  There  are  two  cylindrical  heads  rotating  in  oppo- 
site directions  within  a  screen-lined  casing.  The  heads 
become  filled  with  a  conical  lining  of  the  material  to  be 
crushed,  and  these,  by  centrifugal  force,  throw  the  ore 
which  falls  on  them  against  the  pieces  thrown  in  the  op- 
posite direction  by  the  other  head.  In  this  way  the  ma- 
terial is  broken  against  itself  without  scoring  or  abrading 
the  mill.  To  prove  that  the  theory  of  the  machine  is 
correct,  balls  of  the  hardest  white  cast  iron  have  been  in- 
troduced and  thrown  around  until  they  smashed  themselves 
against  each  other,  the  mill  being  uninjured.  As  a  pre- 
paratory machine,  combining  the  duties  of  the  rock-breaker 
and  coarse  roller  in  one  operation,  this  mill  is  being  used 
by  many  smelting-works. 

Jigs  or  jigging  machines  are  used  to  separate  the  ore  in 
imitation  of  the  shaking  of  a  sieve  by  hand  under  water. 
The  ordinary  type  of  jig  consists  of  a  water-tank  divided 
by  a  partition  above,  not  reaching  the  bottom.  On  one 
side  of  the  partition  is  fixed  a  horizontal  screen  on  which 
r  22* 


272  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

the  sized  ore  is  fed,  and  on  the  other  side  a  loosely  work- 
ing plunger  is  operated  vertically  by  a  crank  or  the  like. 
The  reciprocating  or  up-and-down  motion  of  this  plunger 
causes  a  regular  pulsation  of  water  through  the  screen, 
shaking  and  agitating  the  ore  so  that  the  heavier  parti- 
cles settle  down  and  either  come  through  the  screen  or 
are  worked  through  a  gate  above  the  screen -level,  while 
the  lighter  particles  of  rock  move  on  horizontally  and 
discharge  over  the  side  or  end  of  the  screen.  Jigging 
machinery  is  usually  employed  for  coarse  material,  and 
operates  on  the  principle  that  a  mixture  of  ore  particles 
varying  in  weight,  because  some  contain  more  metal  than 
others,  tend  to  arrange  themselves  in  layers  when  shaken, 
as  by  a  pulsating  column  of  water.  Jigs  are  made  with 
as  many  as  four  compartments,  the  larger  number  being 
required  when  more  than  two  products  are  desired.  In 
the  case  of  three-  or  four-compartment  jigs,  the  plungers 
are  regulated  as  to  stroke  and  speed  independently  of  each 
other  and  with  reference  to  the  work  to  be  done  respec- 
tively on  the  screen-beds  they  govern.  It  is  usual  to  de- 
press the  plungers  by  means  of  a  tappet  or  eccentric,  and 
throw  them  up  with  a  metal  spring  as  they  are  released. 

An  hydraulic  separator  is  manufactured  which  consists 
of  a  V-shaped  trough,  into  which  the  pulp  flows  through  a 
smaller  trough,  or  launder,  while  the  slimes  are  discharged 
by  overflow  through  another  trough.  A  partition  or 
diving  board  is  set  down  into  the  principal  trough  to 
prevent  any  direct  flow  from  the  entrance  to  exit.  A 
stream  of  clean  water  is  forced  in  near  the  bottom  under 
sufficient  pressure  to  drive  the  slimes  and  mud  to  the 
surface,  where  they  are  discharged  at  the  overflow,  while 
the  heavier  particles  and  clean  water  are  discharged 
below. 


ORE-CONCENTRATING  MACHINERY. 


273 


Another  form  of  separator  is  known  as  the  Calumet 
classifier,  and  consists  of  a  trough  having  four  or  five  de- 
pressions along  the  bottom.  The  water  and  sand  undergo 
successive  washings  in  each  depression  as  they  pass  along. 
Shields  are  used  to  guard  the  depressions,  which  retain  the 
heavier  particles.  This  form  is  said  to  use  very  little  water 
as  compared  with  other  separators. 

In  a  general  concentrating  plant  separate  settling-boxes 
are  used  to  divide  the  slimes  for  dressing  or  fine  concen- 
tration, but  in  a  distinctively  fine  concentration  mill  the 
ore  is  at  once  reduced  to  pulp  for  treatment.  In  this  crise 
buddies  and  tables  of  different  types  are  used  where  the 
product  is  of  various  grades,  some  requiring  further  treat- 
ment, but  for  clean  concentration  the  Frue  vanner  is  uni- 
versally used.  Where  gold  and  silver  are  the  metals 
sought  the  ore  requires  fine  crushing,  and  the  same  is  true 

FIG.  66. 


THE  FRUE  VANNING  MACHINE. 


in  a  less  degree  of  lead,  copper,  and  tin  ores.  For  such, 
stamps  and  Frue  vanners  are  the  regulation  outfit,  the 
vanners  producing  a  cleaner  mineral  than  other  slime- 


274  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

dressing  machines,  with  exceptionally  low  loss.  They  also 
have  the  advantage  of  immediate  automatic  treatment  of 
the  pulp  without  sizing,  at  one  operation,  and  without  any 
rehandling.  They  require  a  minimum  of  power,  water, 
and  attendance. 

The  Frue  vanner  has  an  endless  rubber  belt  presenting  a 
top  surface  twelve  feet  long  and  four  feet  wide,  supported 
by  rollers  so  as  to  form  an  inclined  plane  bounded  on  the 
sides  by  rubber  flanges.  By  means  of  a  drum  the  belt  is 
given  an  upward  travel  along  the  incline,  and  at  the  same 
time  receives  a  regular  shaking  or  settling  motion  from  a 
crank-shaft  running  along  one  side  at  right  angles  to  the 
travel  of  the  belt.  At  the  head  of  the  belt  is  arranged  a 
row  of  jets  of  water,  while  the  ore  is  fed  upon  the  belt  in 
a  stream  of  water  about  three  feet  from  the  head,  and  flows- 
down  the  incline  slowly,  the  constant  shaking  depositing 
the  mineral  on  the  belt  so  that  it  is  carried  upward.  The 
water-jet  washes  back  the  light  sand,  allowing  only  the 
heavy  mineral  to  pass  to  the  water-tank  below.  The  Em- 
brey  ore  concentrator  is  a  very  similar  machine,  having  an 
end  shake  instead  of  a  side  shake. 

The  revolving  buddle  or  slime-table  is  a  very  useful 
machine  for  separating  ores.  The  revolving  Evans's  table 
is  perhaps  the  best-known  type.  It  has  a  circular  table 
about  fourteen  feet  in  diameter  that  is  slightly  coned.  The 
ore  is  fed  to  this  from  the  centre,  along  with  the  water. 
The  rotation  of  the  table  carries  around  the  deposited 
material,  which  is  subjected  to  the  washing  action  of  clear 
water  flowing  down  from  the  centre,  and  is  eventually 
washed  oif  the  table  by  strong  jets  of  water,  sometimes 
assisted  by  stationary  brushes  if  water  is  scarce,  and 
dropped  into  launders  below.  The  table  thus  continuously 
arrives  clean  to  receive  the  flow  of  pulp,  being  freed  of 


ORE-CONCENTRATING   MACHINERY.  275 

waste,  middlings,  and  clean  mineral  before  the  full  rotation 
is  completed.  The  surface  of  the  table  is  commonly  made 
of  soft  pine  wood,  but  cement  and  rubber  are  also  used. 
Another  form  of  this  machine  has  the  cone  inverted,  re- 
ceiving the  ore  at  the  outer  edge,  and  discharging  at  the 
lowest  point,  the  centre.  In  yet  another  form  the  buddle 
or  table  is  stationary,  the  feed-spout  and  washing  pipes 
doing  the  travelling,  the  effect  being  precisely  the  same. 
Within  a  few  years  a  double  or  two-story  slime- table  has 
been  introduced  which  gives  better  results,  though  with 
any  slime-table  it  is  necessary  to  partially  classify  the 
material,  in  the  first  place,  as  by  an  hydraulic  classifier. 
The  Evans's  slime-table  will  handle  about  twenty-five  tons 
of  material  per  day  of  twenty-four  hours.  The  rotation 
is  of  necessity  comparatively  slow,  one  complete  turn  being 
made  every  eighty  seconds. 

The  percussion-table  is  a  sort  of  compromise  between  a 
vanner  and  a  revolving  buddle.  It  is  much  used  in  Ger- 
many in  place  of  the  latter  machine.  It  has  an  inclined 
table — or,  more  commonly,  several  such  tables — made  of 
wood,  rubber,  slate,  stone,  or  even  plate-glass.  This  table 
is  usually  about  four  by  eight  feet  in  surface,  and  is  regu- 
larly shocked  or  jarred  by  a  cam  and  spring  operating 
alternately  against  the  frame.  The  ore  is  fed  over  the 
surface  with  a  stream  of  water  from  one  of  the  upper 
corners.  The  downward  motion  of  the  current  of  water 
combined  with  the  side-jarring  of  the  table  tend  to  work 
the  heavier  particles  along  in  a  diagonal  course,  so  that  the 
grades  may  be  separated  by  guides. 

The  various  processes  used  in  obtaining  metals  from  the 
ore  are  too  numerous  and  exhaustive  to  be  more  than  hinted 
at  here.  For  the  milling  of  silver  ores  the  Boss  continuous 
process  of  amalgamation,  patented  by  M .  P.  Boss,  has  come 


276 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


into  extensive  use  within  a  few  years.  It  is  undoubtedly 
superior  in  many  respects  to  the  old  system  of  pan  amalga- 
mation. The  first  cost  of  plant  is  also  considerably  re- 
duced. The  illustration  shows  a  cross-section  of  a  silver- 
mill  as  arranged  for  this  process  by  Fraser  &  Chalmers. 

FIG.  67. 


CROSS-SECTION  OF  A  SILVER-MILL. 


The  ore  passes  through  the  grizzly  and  crusher,  on  the 
right  and  upper  end  of  the  picture,  in  the  usual  manner, 
and  by  means  of  the  automatic  feeders  to  the  stamps  in 
the  centre.  The  pulp  from  the  stamp-battery  is  flowed 
through  pipes  to  special  grinding  pans,  on  the  next  to  the 
lowest  elevation,  thence  by  other  pipes  to  the  first  amal- 
gamating-pan,  and  continuously  through  a  line  of  pans 
and  settlers  on  the  lower  floor,  the  tailings  being  run  off 
or  led  over  concentrators.  The  quicksilver — necessary 
to  draw  the  particles  of  silver  into  contact — is  let  into  the 
pans  by  means  of  pipes  from  a  distributing  tank,  and  the 
amalgam  so  formed  is  flowed  through  pipes  to  a  strainer. 
The  chemicals  are  supplied  to  the  pans  by  two  automatic 
feeders.  Steam-siphons  are  used  for  cleaning  out  the  pans 


ORE-CONCENTRATING  MACHINERY.  277 

and  for  carrying  the  pulp  past  any  pan  when  it  is  necessary 
to  cut  it  out  for  repairs.  The  main  line  shaft  runs  directly 
under  the  pans  and  settlers,  each  of  which  is  driven  from  it 
by  a  friction-clutch.  The  arrangement  of  separate  clutches 
is  made  for  the  purpose  of  enabling  any  pan  or  settler  to 
be  stopped  or  cleaned  without  stopping  the  whole  line. 

The  largest  quartz- mill  in  the  world  is  believed  to  be 
that  of  the  Alaska  Treadwell  Gold-Mining  Company,  at 
Douglas  Island,  Alaska.  Here  are  run  two  hundred 
and  forty  stamps  of  eight  hundred  and  fifty  pounds  each, 
six  rock- breakers,  and  ninety-six  concentrators,  with  a 
capacity  of  six  hundred  tons  of  ore  per  day  of  twenty- 
four  hours.  The  mill  was  erected  by  the  Risdon  Iron 
Works  of  San  Francisco.  Here  the  gold  ores  are  treated 
in  vats  by  the  chlorination  process,  which  is  based  upon 
the  property  of  chlorine  gas  for  transforming  metallic  gold 
into  a  soluble  chloride  of  gold.  In  this  condition  it  can 
be  dissolved  in  cold  water  and  precipitated  in  a  metallic 
state  by  a  solution  of  sulphide  of  iron,  or  as  a  sulphide  of  gold 
by  sulphuretted  hydrogen  gas,  this  method  being  known  as 
the  Plattner  process.  The  sulphurets,  as  the  gold-bearing 
pyrites  are  called,  are  collected  at  the  mill  on  Frue  van- 
ners,  and  contain,  on  an  average,  forty  per  cent,  of  sulphur. 
The  gangue  is  quartzose,  with  a  little  calcite,  on  account 
of  which  it  is  necessary  to  roast  with  salt.  Four  reverber- 
atory  furnaces  are  used  for  the  roasting,  and  each  is  a 
monster  of  its  kind,  being  thirteen  feet  wide  and  sixty-five 
feet  long.  The  four  have  a  total  capacity  of  twenty  tons 
of  sulphurets  daily.  When  the  roasting  is  completed,  the 
charge  is  removed  from  the  pit  under  the  furnace,  and 
spread  on  the  cooling-floors,  sufficiently  moistened  to  pre- 
vent dusting  and  packing,  and  carefully  sifted  into  large 
vats.  The  lids  of  the  vats  are  then  lowered,  the  joints 


278  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

carefully  cemented  with  clay,  and  the  chlorine  gas  turned 
on.  Four  hours  are  sufficient  for  the  gas  to  permeate  the 
material,  after  which  the  gas  is  shut  off  and  the  vats  are 
allowed  to  stand  for  about  thirty  hours.  The  leaching 
requires  twelve  hours.  The  tailings  are  sampled  and 
assayed,  and  if  found  to  be  worth  less  than  three  dollars 
per  set  of  vats  they  are  allowed  to  run  to  waste.  For 
convenience  and  safety  the  gold  is  run  into  intermediate 
tanks,  and  from  these  into  precipitating  vats.  When  a 
vat  is  full,  or  all  the  solution  is  run  in,  the  pulp  is  stirred 
and  allowed  to  settle  for  from  eighteen  to  twenty-four 
hours.  The  supernatant  liquor,  containing  such  gold  as 
has  not  been  precipitated,  is  then  drawn  off  through  a 
large  filter,  which  gathers  the  remainder,  amounting  to 
only  twenty-five  cents'  worth  for  each  ton  of  material  that 
has  been  treated.  A  clean-up  is  made  twice  a  month,  at 
which  time  all  the  gold  is  washed  into  a  small  tub,  in 
which  it  is  allowed  to  settle  all  night,  when  the  superna- 
tant liquor  is  drawn  off  and  returned  to  one  of  the  precipi- 
tating vats.  The  gold  in  the  small  tub  is  then  placed  in 
an  iron  drying-pan,  where  it  is  gently  annealed  over  a 
small  stove,  taken,  into  the  melting-room  and  run  into 
bars.  The  drying  and  melting  of  twelve  thousand  dollars' 
worth  of  gold  can  thus  be  accomplished  in  a  single  day  by 
one  man. 

In  the  Black  Hills  Mills  battery  amalgamation  is  used 
to  extract  the  gold.  It  begins  in  the  mortar,  where  mer- 
cury is  added  at  intervals,  and  ends  on  the  apron-plates, 
where  nearly  all  the  amalgam  not  retained  by  the  inside 
amalgamated  copper  plates  is  collected  daily,  any  defici- 
ency in  the  collecting  mercury  and  amalgam  on  the  plates 
being  supplemented  by  the  various  traps. 


THE  P ELTON   WATER-WHEEL.  279 

THE    PELTON    WATER-WHEEL. 

A  Simple  Machine  which  has  attained  Marvellous  Results,  by  a 
Return  to  First  Principles — A  Steam  Turbine  similarly  con- 
structed. 

THE  use  of  a  fall  of  water  to  develop  power  to  do  work 
dates  from  such  an  early  period  as  to  be  lost  in  myths. 
No  doubt  this  was  the  very  first  power  which  man  har- 
nessed to  his  primitive  machines.  As  long  as  Nature 
continues  to  draw  the  moisture  from  the  seas,  and  drop  it 
in  the  form  of  rain  upon  the  mountain-tops  so  that  the 
rivulets  are  formed  and  combine  to  make  mighty  rivers,  so 
long  shall  we  have  water-power;  and  as  long  as  such 
power  exists  it  is  likely  to  be  used,  for  it  is  the  simplest 
and  least  expensive  natural  source. 

Considering  these  things,  it  is  a  little  surprising  to  learn 
that  only  five  per  cent,  of  the  water-power  of  the  world 
has  been  rendered  available  for  use.  Only  at  the  present 
time,  1895,  is  the  great  Niagara  Fall,  the  mightiest  natural 
power  of  the  sort  on  the  globe,  about  to  be  utilized  for 
man's  benefit. 

A  more  widespread  form  of  neglect  as  regards  water- 
powers  has  been  in  the  overlooking  of  the  advantages  of 
small  streams  of  great  fall,  the  tendency  having  been  to 
develop  and  use  only  large  streams  with  a  low  head  or  fall 
of  water.  When  we  observe  the  cumbersome  mechanism 
required  to  use  the  power  of  a  large  river  of  slight  fall — 
the  great  dam  and  monstrous  turbines,  with  huge  pipes 
and  shafting — and  contrast  these  with  very  simple  means 
devised  within  a  few  years  for  using  the  water  of  small 
streams  having  a  high  head,  we  are  filled  with  wonder  as 
to  why  somebody  did  not  think  of  this  before.  The  Pel- 
ton  system  of  water-power,  to  which  the  world  is  indebted 
M  23 


280 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


for  a  means  of  producing  great  forces  from  little  streams, 
makes  use  of  not  only  the  very  simplest  form  of  mechan- 
ism, but  a  form  which  assuredly  was  very  like  the  first 
that  man  devised.  It  is  amazing  to  think  that  the  very 
simple  water-wheel  shown  in  the  illustration  was  not  put 


FIG.  68. 


THE  PELTON  WATER-WHEEL. 


on  the  market  three  thousand  years  ago  instead  of  some 
ten  years  since.  It  is  simply  a  wheel  with  a  ring  of 
buckets  on  its  periphery,  driven  by  water  from  a  pipe 
delivered  through  one  or  more  nozzles  at  an  angle.  Yet 
this  wheel  received  the  highest  award  at  the  World's 
Columbian  Exposition,  as  a  recent  invention  of  unusual 
merit.  Under  the  high  heads  for  which  it  is  designed,  it 
makes  available  almost  the  whole  of  the  theoretical  power 
— more,  probably,  than  any  other  machine  manufactured. 
The  power  of  the  Pelton  wheel  does  not  depend  upon  its 
diameter  but  upon  the  head  and  the  amount  of  water 


THE  PELTON   WATER-WHEEL.  281 

applied  to  it.  Where  a  very  considerable  amount  of 
power  is  wanted  under  a  comparatively  low  head,  a  wheel 
of  larger  diameter  is  necessary  to  admit  of  buckets  of  cor- 
responding capacity,  as  also  the  application  of  two  or  more 
nozzles,  for  the  purpose  of  multiplying  power.  The 
smaller  sizes  are  principally  in  demand,  but  wheels  as  large 
as  fifteen  or  twenty  feet  in  diameter  are  sometimes  made  for 
the  purpose  of  direct  connection  to  crank-shafts  of  pumps, 
compressors,  etc.  Small  buckets  are  frequently  used  on 
wheels  of  large  diameter  for  the  purpose  of  reducing  speed 
when  operating  under  high  heads  and  running  slow  sj)eed 
machinery.  More  than  one  nozzle  is  sometimes  used  to 
increase  the  power  by  applying  more  water  or  for  securing 
a  higher  speed  than  can  be  obtained  from  a  larger  wheel 
with  a  single  nozzle.  By  using  multiple- nozzles  sufficient 
power  can  often  be  obtained  from  a  wheel  of  small  diam- 
eter to  admit  of  direct  connection  to  the  shaft  of  a  dynamo 
or  other  high-speed  machinery  without  intermediate  gear- 
ing, or  of  giving  such  increase  of  speed  as  to  admit  of 
belting  direct  without  the  use  of  countershafts,  etc. 

The  transmission  of  power  by  electricity  has  opened  up 
a  wider  range  for  the  utilization  of  such  sources  of  power 
than  has  been  possible  by  any  previous  methods,  and  the 
field  is  continually  widening  as  the  science  advances. 
Water  that  for  thousands  of  years  has  run  to  waste  can 
now  be  transformed  into  electrical  energy,  and  carried  long 
distances  and  made  as  useful  as  at  the  point  where  gener- 
ated, and  at  small  cost  in  most  cases  as  compared  with 
steam.  The  immeasurably  vast  resources  of  power  avail- 
able by  this  means  open  up  in  all  directions  new  fields  for 
enterprise,  affording  profitable  employment  for  both  labor 
and  capital. 

It  is  under  heads  of  fifty  feet  or  more  that  the  Pelton 


282  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

wheel  develops  its  advantages,  and  under  heads  of  several 
hundred  feet  the  power  developed  is  simply  enormous,  and 
not  to  be  obtained  from  any  other  form  of  wheel.  Let  us 
look  at  the  figures :  A  twelve-inch  wheel  run  under  a 
twenty-foot  fall  develops  only  one-eighth  of  a  horse-power. 
Give  it  a  hundred  feet  of  fall  and  we  secure  nearly  one 
and  a  half  horse-power;  make  it  two  hundred  feet  fall, 
and  we  have  four  horse-power ;  while  at  five  hundred 
feet,  we  get  sixteen  horse-power ;  and  at  a  thousand  feet, 
fifty-two  horse-power.  This  is  a  tremendous  power  for  so 
small  a  wheel,  but  if  you  want  fifty  horse-power,  and  have 
but  eighty  feet  of  fall,  use  a  six-foot  wheel  and  you  get  it. 
At  a  head  of  two  hundred  and  fifty  feet  your  six-foot 
wheel  will  give  you  two  hundred  and  sixty-seven  horse- 
power ;  at  five  hundred  feet,  seven  hundred  and  fifty-five 
horse-power ;  while  at  one  thousand  feet  you  will  receive 
the  enormous  power  of  twenty-one  hundred  and  thirty-six 
horses — all  from  a  six-foot  wheel  that  one  horse  could 
carry  without  trouble.  All  these  figures  are  given  on  the 
basis  of  one  nozzle.  If  the  figures  are  not  high  enough, 
put  on  three  or  four  more  nozzles,  and  you  can  get  any 
power  you  want. 

One  of  the  most  notable  features  of  the  Pelton  system  is 
the  facility  with  which  adaptation  can  be  made  to  widely 
different  conditions  of  water-supply  and  power  without 
loss  of  useful  effect.  This  is  accomplished  by  a  simple 
change  of  nozzle-tip,  varying  the  size  of  the  stream  thrown 
on  the  wheel — the  power  of  which  may  be  varied  by  this 
means  from  its  maximum  down  to  twenty-five  per  cent, 
without  appreciable  loss — thus  working  to  its  full  capacity 
with  an  ample  water  supply,  or  to  the  same  relative  advan- 
tage with  a  reduced  quantity,  when  for  any  reason  the 
supply  fails  in  part.  This  system  also  admits  of  using, 


THE  PELTON   WATER-WHEEL.  283 

without  disadvantage,  a  wheel  of  larger  capacity  than 
present  wants  require  with  reference  to  an  increase  of  power 
wrhen  wanted.  Variations  of  construction  as  to  diameter 
of  wheel,  size  of  buckets,  number  of  streams  applied,  also 
admit  of  adaptation  to  all  conditions  and  requirements  of 
service  either  as  to  speed  or  power,  in  the  most  simple  and 
efficient  way,  and  at  the  smallest  possible  cost. 

At  the  Comstock  mines  in  Virginia,  Nevada,  there  is  a 
Pelton  wheel,  of  three  feet  diameter,  that  develops  more 
power  than  any  other  contrivance  of  its  size  in  practical 
use  in  the  world.  It  is  made  excessively  strong,  being  a 
solid  steel  disk  with  phosphor-bronze  buckets  securely 
riveted  to  the  rim.  It  is  located  at  the  Sutro  tunnel  level 
of  the  California  and  Consolidated  Virginia  shaft,  sixteen 
hundred  and  forty  feet  below  the  surface.  In  addition  to 
the  head  afforded  by  the  depth  of  the  shaft,  the  pipe  is 
connected  to  the  line  of  the  Gold  Hill  Water  Company, 
which  carries  a  head  of  four  hundred  and  sixty  feet,  giving 
the  wheel  a  vertical  head  of  two  thousand  one  hundred  feet, 
equivalent  to  a  pressure  of  nine  hundred  and  eleven  pounds. 
The  water,  after  passing  the  wheel,  is  carried  out  through 
the  tunnel,  four  miles  in  length.  The  wheel  makes  eleven 
hundred  and  fifty  revolutions  a  minute,  giving  it  a  periph- 
eral velocity  of  a  hundred  and  twenty  miles  an  hour.  If 
it  ran  without  load  it  could  be  speeded  to  just  double  these 
figures,  giving  the  rim  a  speed  of  twenty-one  thousand  six 
hundred  and  eight  feet  per  minute,  or  two  hundred  and 
forty  miles  an  hour.  With  a  half-inch  stream  of  water  it 
develops  one  hundred  horse-power.  This  wheel  has  run 
several  years  under  these  conditions  without  any  cost  for 
repairs. 

The  Hydraulic  Power  Company,  of  Chester,  England, 
run  wheels  under  nearly  as  severe  pressures.  They  have 

23* 


284  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

an  eighteen-inch  wheel,  weighing  but  thirty  pounds,  that 
gives  twenty-one  horse-power  with  a  quarter-inch  stream. 
The  Pelton  wheels  are  also  built  for  use  in  cities  as 
motors,  having  for  this  purpose  an  iron  case,  with  a  pipe 
bringing  in  water  from  the  mains.  They  are  very  desirable 
where  the  pressure  is  high,  and  may  be  conveniently  con- 
nected with  a  dynamo,  as  shown  in  the  illustration.  The 


FIG. 


THE  PELTON  MOTOR  WITH  DYNAMO  CONNECTED. 

wheel,  under  these  circumstances,  is  made  of  a  diameter  to 
give  proper  speed  to  the  dynamo  under  the  water-head 
available.  Where  a  considerable  head  of  water  is  obtain- 
able, a  small  stream  may  be  used  to  run  an  electric  lighting 
plant  at  small  cost.  The  water  being  free,  the  only  charge 
is  for  interest,  repairs,  and  attendance. 

Right  in  line  with  this  discovery  of  the  virtues  of  the 
simple  form  of  water-wheel  here  described  comes  an  inven- 
tion for  using  steam  in  the  same  manner.  No  doubt  the 
first  endeavor  to  use  steam  was  by  allowing  it  to  blow 
a  draft  in  a  rotating  fan  or  wheel  of  some  sort,  but  the 


ILLUMINATING   GAS.  285 

power  thus  developed  in  the  early  experiments  did  not 
compare  with  that  obtained  by  using  steam  under  pressure 
through  the  medium  of  a  cylinder,  as  in  the  steam-engine. 
In  1890,  Dr.  Gustaf  de  Laval  made  a  little  wheel  designed 
to  rotate  fast  enough  to  secure  the  full  force  of  escaping 
steam.  It  was  a  miniature  turbine  wheel,  of  less  than  four 
inches  diameter,  constructed  in  the  most  substantial  manner 
of  steel  and  aluminum  bronze,  and  arranged  to  admit  steam 
through  its  axle  and  deliver  it  at  the  periphery,  after  having 
served  to  do  work  by  impinging  on  the  inner  guides  of  the 
wheel.  He  secured  a  rotation  of  fifty  times  a  second,  de- 
veloping five  horse-power  with  this  insignificantly  small 
contrivance.  This  wheel  was  exhibited  at  the  Columbian 
Exposition,  where  it  attracted  much  attention.  A  larger 
size — of  about  seven  inches  diameter — developed  twenty 
horse-power.  The  only  difficulty  would  apj)ear  to  be  the 
utilization  of  such  a  speed  without  enormous  frictioual 
losses  in  reducing  the  speed  to  common  necessities.  For 
this  purpose  De  Laval  devised  gear-wheels  rotating  in  oil, 
but  it  is  fair  to  presume  that  he  was  not  wholly  successful, 
since  the  steam-turbine,  as  he  calls  it,  has  not  been  placed 
upon  the  market.  If  it  can  be  made  to  deliver  its  power 
economically  there  will  surely  be  a  great  demand,  because 
of  the  economy  of  first  cost  and  of  space  in  using  such  a 
device  in  place  of  an  ordinary  engine. 


ILLUMINATING   GAS. 

How  Coal-Gas  was  made,  how  it  is  made  and  enriched,  and  how 
it  is  likely  to  give  way  to  the  New  Illummant,  Acetylene  Gas. 

FEW  people  have  any  clear  idea  as  to  how  the  illumi- 
nating gas  which  they  burn  is  manufactured.  In  a  general 
way  they  know  that  a  gas  company  somehow  extracts  vapor 


286  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

from  coal  and  gathers  it  in  a  big  tank  or  holder  for  distri- 
bution. If  they  look  up  the  matter  in  the  encyclopaedias 
they  gain  some  notion  of  the  methods  and  principles,  but 
little  of  the  latest  and  newest  processes  that  have  come  in 
within  a  very  few  years,  displacing  older  methods  because 
they  are  better. 

The  principle  of  making  coal-gas  consists  in  heating  the 
coal  in  a  large  metal  or  fire-clay  vessel,  called  a  retort,  so 
as  to  distil  oif  the  gas.  By  this  simple  process  a  ton  of 
coal  used  in  a  retort  will  yield  about  ten  thousand  cubic 
feet  of  illuminating  gas.  A  vast  improvement  on  this 
process  is  obtained  by  taking  the  coal  used  in  the  first 
operation,  which  has  now  become  coke,  heating  it  to  in- 
candescence, and  forcing  steam  through  the  mass.  By  this 
means  about  thirty  thousand  more  feet  of  gas  are  obtained 
from  the  ton  of  coal,  not  including  such  coal  as  is  used  for 
the  fires  producing  the  heat.  The  gas  produced  by  this 
process,  in  which  steam  is  used,  is  called  water-gas,  since  it 
is  the  decomposition  of  the  water  that  releases  the  hydro- 
gen forming  the  gas.  A  vapor  made  from  crude  oil  is 
commonly  added  in  small  quantities  to  give  greater  illumi- 
nating power. 

Carbon  when  highly  heated  has  so  much  affinity  for 
oxygen  that  it  will  decompose  steam  in  order  to  combine 
with  the  oxygen  that  forms  a  part  of  the  steam.  This  is 
the  principle  that  makes  water-gas  possible.  Either  an- 
thracite coal  or  coke  may  be  used  to  secure  the  necessary 
carbon. 

There  are  a  number  of  recently  perfected  processes  in  use 
for  making  a  rich  gas  economically,  and  a  description  of 
the  Rose- Hastings  process  will  serve  as  well  as  any  other, 
for  they  are  much  alike.  This  is  a  combination  process 
for  making  coal-gas,  water-gas,  and  oil-gas  at  the  same 


ILL  UMINA  TING   GAS. 


287 


time,  and  securing  the  benefits  of  a  desirable  combination. 
It  is  much  used  in  connection  with  natural-gas  plants, 
which  have  a  bad  habit  of  giving  out  as  the  thermometer 
approaches  zero,  hence  require  to  be  supplemented  by  a 
system  of  manufactured  gas.  This  apparatus  consists  of 
one  or  more  heating  chambers  or  retorts,  used  for  the  distil- 
lation of  soft  coal  into  gas  ;  also  chambers  for  coke,  carbu- 

FIG.  70. 


THE  ROSE-HASTINGS  COAL-GAS  APPARATUS. 

retting,  gas-fixing,  and  steaming,  all  arranged  in  a  circle ; 
and  a  central  chamber  for  distributing  hot  air — the  whole 
set  of  chambers  being  enclosed  in  a  great  steel  shell,  as 
shown  in  the  illustration.  The  sections  for  soft  coal  and 
coke  are  arched  midway  of  their  height  ^yith  perforated  di- 
visions, the  chambers  above  the  arches  being  respectively  for 


288  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

storing  heat  and  for  carburetting,  the  latter  being  the  process 
of  impregnating  the  gas  with  carbon  to  increase  its  illumi- 
nating power.  The  heat-storing  and  carburetting  chambers 
communicate  near  the  top,  and  the  coke  and  gas-fixing  sec- 
tions near  the  bottom.  The  chambers  using  coal  have 
mechanical  feeders  by  which  the  coal  can  be  supplied  at 
any  time.  The  coke  chamber  may  be  charged  once  or 
twice  a  day  through  the  doors. 

The  coke  and  coal  being  supplied  and  the  fires  properly 
regulated,  air  is  driven  up  through  the  coal  chambers, 
burning  a  portion  of  the  coal,  and  heating  it  to  a  high 
temperature.  The  hot  gases  so  obtained  are  carried  down 
through  the  coke,  in  this  way  heating  without  burning  it. 
When  the  apparatus  is  brought  to  the  right  heat,  and  before 
the  hot-air  blast  is  stopped,  a  charge  of  soft  coal  is  dumped 
into  each  of  the  coal  chambers.  The  blast  is  then  stopped 
and  steam  turned  on  under  each  of  the  coal  chambers,  and 
oil  turned  in  at  the  top  of  the  coke  chamber.  As  a  result 
water-gas  is  produced  in  each  of  the  coal  chambers,  and, 
mingling  with  the  coal-gas  distilled  off  from  the  fresh 
charge  of  soft  coal,  passes  over  to  the  coke  chamber,  down 
through  the  red-hot  coke,  where  it  encounters  and  mixes 
with  the  vapors  of  crude  oil,  the  whole  forming  a  "  fixed" 
gas — that  is,  a  gas  that  will  stand  a  low  temperature  with- 
out condensing.  This  combination  secures  the  best  results 
of  three  processes  in  one,  combining  a  water-gas  plant  with 
a  coal-gas  plant  and  enriching  the  mixture  with  oil-gas. 
With  this  apparatus  thirty-eight  pounds  of  coal,  thirteen 
pounds  of  coke,  and  three  and  a  half  gallons  of  oil  will 
make  one  thousand  cubic  feet  of  twenty-two  candle-power 
gas,  including  the  coal  consumed  in  heating  the  apparatus. 

The  gas  leaves  the  machine  at  a  temperature  of  about 
800°  F.,  which  is  above  the  melting-point  of  the  softer 


ILLUMINATING   GAS.  289 

metals,  as  zinc  and  lead,  and,  when  we  consider  how 
readily  gas  burns,  it  seems  at  first  a  dangerously  high 
temperature.  This  hot  gas  passes  through  a  multitu- 
bular  condenser,  so  that  it  may  heat  the  water  for  the 
boilers  while  cooling  itself,  thus  effecting  an  economy. 
The  condenser  is  usually  so  hot  as  actually  to  generate  a 
considerable  quantity  of  steam  that  goes  over  to  the  boilers 
with  the  feed-water.  After  leaving  the  condenser  the  gas 
passes  through  a  seal  and  washer,  an  apparatus  for  re- 
moving impurities  ;  and  thence  to  the  scrubber,  where  the 
condensable  matter  is  got  rid  of;  then  to  a  purifier,  and 
finally  to  a  gas-holder,  the  great  telescopic  tank  by  which 
we  always  recognize  a  gas-works. 

Gas  made  by  the  above  process  mixes  readily  with  natu- 
ral gas,  and  a  first-rate  article  has  the  following  analysis : 
hydrogen,  36.40 ;  marsh-gas,  23.20  ;  carbonic  oxide,  19.10; 
heavy  hydrocarbons  (illuminants),  14.05 ;  nitrogen,  3.08 ; 
carbonic  acid,  3.02;  oxygen,  1.15. 

With  apparatus  now  on  the  market,  it  is  possible,  in 
sections  where  coal  is  cheap,  to  sell  gas  at  thirty-five  cents 
per  thousand  feet,  and  this  is  actually  done  in  Louisville, 
Kentucky.  There  are  few  places,  however,  where  it  sells 
for  less  than  one  dollar,  though  the  tendency  of  prices  is 
downward. 

A  very  material  cheapening  in  the  use  of  gas  for  light- 
ing is  accomplished  by  placing  a  chemically-prepared  hood 
over  the  gas-flame,  producing  incandescence  of  the  whole 
hood,  resulting  in  the  development  of  four  times  as  much 
light  without  increasing  the  gas  consumption.  Dr.  Auer 
von  Welsbach  experimented  with  the  salts  of  rare  earths, 
until  he  found  a  combination  that  produced  the  above  re- 
sults. At  first  the  discovery  was  of  little  commercial  value, 
because  of  the  scarcity  of  the  earths,  cerium,  lanthanum, 


290  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

thorium,  yttrium,  zirconium,  praseodymium,  neodymium, 
and  erbium,  but  as  soon  as  it  was  known  that  a  commercial 
demand  existed  for  them  they  were  found  in  considerable 
quantities,  in  Henderson  County,  North  Carolina,  in  Nor- 
way, in  the  Ural  Mountains,  in  northern  California,  and  in 
parts  of  Texas.  These  deposits  have  been  promptly  bought 
up  by  interested  parties,  and,  as  a  result,  the  manufacture 
of  the  hoods  is  in  a  fair  way  to  become  a  valuable  monop- 
oly. In  manufacturing  the  hoods  for  the  lights,  the  first 
process  is  to  weave  a  cotton  hood,  which  is  then  soaked  in 
the  salts  obtained  from  the  earths  by  various  patented 
processes.  After  drying,  the  cotton  is  burned  out,  and  the 
hood  is  ready  for  use.  The  light  obtained  by  these  incan- 
descent hoods  is  so  soft  and  powerful,  and  the  amount  of 
gas  used  is  so  small,  that  they  are  likely  to  supplant  the 
incandescent  electric  light  in  many  cases. 

So  much  for  coal-gas.  It  is  possible,  in  spite  of  these 
marked  improvements,  that  the  world  is  on  the  point  of 
discarding  it  altogether  in  favor  of  acetylene,  for  which  the 
most  astonishing  claims  are  made,  and  apparently  substan- 
tiated. This  gas  surpasses  in  brilliancy  and  economy  all 
other  forms  of  light,  and  would  be  likely  to  distance 
electricity  were  it  not  that  the  methods  of  manufacturing 
electric  light  are  liable  to  great  improvement  in  the  next 
few  years.  Acetylene,  when  burned  at  the  rate  of  six  feet 
an  hour,  the  pressure  common  to  good  gas-burners,  emits 
a  light  equal  to  three  hundred  candle-power,  as  against 
twenty-two  to  twenty-seven  candle-power  for  good  qualities 
of  enriched  water-gas.  That  it  is  more  than  twelve  times 
as  valuable  was  demonstrated  to  an  audience  recently  at 
the  Franklin  Institute  in  Philadelphia. 

In  order  to  understand  what  acetylene  gas  is  we  must 
first  premise  that  a  carbide  is  a  compound  of  carbon  with 


ILLUMINATING   GAS.  291 

one  or  more  positive  elements ;  that  the  carbides  of  the 
alkali  and  alkaline-earth  metals,  such  as  potassium,  so- 
diurn,  borium,  strontium,  and  calcium,  when  brought  into 
combination  with  water  will  decompose  the  same,  forming 
a  hydrated  oxide  of  the  metal  and  acetylene  gas.  In 
other  words,  the  combination  of  calcium  (lime)  with  carbon 
(charcoal)  and  with  water  can  be  made  to  produce  a  bril- 
liantly-burning gas.  Since  these  three  things  are  exceed- 
ingly cheap,  it  remains  only  to  find  an  economical  method 
of  manufacture,  and  we  have  a  light  and  a  fuel  that  will 
beat  the  world.  Such  a  process  is  described  in  a  United 
States  patent  granted  to  Edward  X.  Dickerson  and  Julius 
J.  Suckert,  March  19,  1895. 

Calcium  carbide,  the  principal  constituent  of  this  gas,  as 
prepared  by  Thomas  L.  Willson,  is  a  dark-brown,  dense 
substance,  having  a  crystalline  metallic  fracture  of  blue  or 
brown  appearance,  and  a  specific  gravity  of  2.26,  or  a  little 
less  than  charcoal.  It  has  a  peculiar  odor,  due  to  moisture 
in  the  atmosphere.  It  will  withstand  a  very  high  tem- 
perature, a  Bunsen  blast-lamp  raising  it  to  a  white  heat 
without  other  effect  than  to  convert  the  exterior  into  lime. 
When  brought  into  contact  with  water,  or  water  vapor 
that  is  not  extremely  hot,  it  is  rapidly  decomposed,  one 
pound  of  calcium  carbide  forming  nearly  six  feet  of  acety- 
lene gas  at  the  temperature  of  64°  F. 

Acetylene  gas  is  colorless,  smells  somewhat  like  garlic, 
and  is  very  slightly  lighter  than  the  air.  It  may  be  heated 
to  a  temperature  of  370°  F.,  under  a  pressure  of  forty- 
three  atmospheres,  without  decomposition.  It  can  be  con- 
densed to  a  liquid  with  ease,  the  critical  point  of  tempera- 
ture, above  which  it  will  not  liquefy,  being  about  100°  F. 
One  pound  of  the  liquefied  gas,  when  evaporated  at  64°  F., 
gives  forth  fourteen  and  one-half  feet  of  gas  at  atmospheric 

24 


292  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

pressure ;  in  other  words,  its  bulk  increases  four  hundred 
times. 

Dr.  J.  J.  Suckert  thus  describes  a  beautiful  experiment 
with  the  gas : 

"  We  will  now  show  you  the  liquefied  gas  contained  in 
this  glass  tube  surrounded  by  a  metal  casing.  As  you 
will  observe,  the  liquefied  gas  forms  a  colorless,  mobile, 
highly  refractive  liquid,  which,  when  the  pressure  is  slightly 
relieved,  commences  to  boil  and  evolves  a  gas  which,  ignited 
as  it  issues  from  this  gas  tip,  burns  with  an  intensely  white 
flame.  If  the  liquefied  gas  be  suddenly  relieved  of  its 
pressure,  or  allowed  to  escape  in  its  liquefied  state  to  the 
atmosphere,  a  portion  evaporates  rapidly,  thereby  abstract- 
ing from  the  remaining  portion  sufficient  heat  to  solidify  it. 
This  tank,  which  is  now  shown  you,  contains  liquefied  ace- 
tylene, which  has  been  cooled  to  a  temperature  of — 28°  F., 
in  order  to  prevent  the  escape  of  too  large  a  volume  of  gas 
during  the  process  of  its  solidification.  Attached  to  this 
valve,  inside  of  the  tank,  is  a  tube  which  reaches  within 
half  an  inch  of  the  tank  bottom,  and  is  open  at  its  lower 
end.  We  now  attach  to  the  valve  a  flannel  bag  to  receive 
the  solidified  gas.  Upon  opening  the  valve  the  liquefied 
gas  escapes,  the  solidified  portion  remaining  in  the  bag 
while  the  gas  formed  escapes  through  the  pores  of  the 
bag.  This  bag  will  hold  about  three-quarters  of  a 
pound  of  the  solidified  gas,  and  this  is  about  the  quantity 
which  is  now  being  emptied  on  the  plate.  A  portion  of 
this  solidified  gas  will  now  be  passed  to  you  for  inspection ; 
another  portion  is  packed  into  this  wooden  tube,  a  ther- 
mometer is  inserted,  and,  as  you  will  observe,  the  tempera- 
ture falls  to  118°  below  zero.  Another  portion  is  placed 
on  one  pound  of  mercury  contained  in  this  saucer ;  the 
intense  cold  of  the  solidified  gas  almost  immediately  solidi- 


ILLUMINATING   GAS.  293 

fies  the  liquid  metal.  A  portion  of  the  solidified  gas,  or 
"acetylene  snow/'  is  now  dropped  into  this  vessel  contain- 
ing water.  Being  lighter  than  water,  it  floats  upon  its  sur- 
face, and  when  touched  with  a  light  the  gas  surrounding 
each  particle  of  the  solidified  gas  burns  witli  a  sooty  flame, 
and  continues  to  burn  until  all  the  solidified  gas  has  disap- 
peared. I  will  now  ignite  the  gas  evolving  from  the 
acetylene  snow  contained  in  this  dish,  and  you  have  the 
interesting  exhibit  of  a  solidified  gas  at  — 118°  F.,  giving 
off  gas  which  can  be  ignited,  and  which,  although  evolved 
at  this  low  temperature,  possesses  the  same  illuminating 
power  as  at  higher  temperatures.  You  have  now  seen 
acetylene  in  its  three  physical  conditions,  namely,  as  a  gas, 
a  liquid,  and  a  solid  ;  and  the  mere  fact  that  it  readily 
assumes  the  gaseous  and  liquid  conditions  is  of  vital  im- 
portance to  its  commercial  application." 

Acetylene  was  first  discovered  and  isolated  by  Davy,  in 
1837.  He  obtained  it  in  the  manufacture  of  potassium. 
In  1862,  Woehler  produced  calcium  carbide  by  heating  a 
mixture  of  lime,  zinc,  and  carbon  to  a  white  heat.  He 
found  that  the  carbide  gave  off  acetylene  gas  when  brought 
into  connection  with  water,  and  his  researches  might  have 
produced  some  results  of  commercial  value  but  for  his 
untimely  death.  In  1893,  H.  Moissan  began  experiment- 
ing with  acetylene  gas  and  calcium  carbide.  In  1 894  he 
produced  the  carbide  with  an  electric  furnace  operating 
with  lime  and  carbon. 

While  attempting  to  procure  metallic  calcium  by  means 
of  an  electric  furnace  in  1894  or  1895,  Thomas  L.  Will- 
son  obtained  calcium  carbide  from  a  mixture  of  lime  and 
carbon  subjected  to  five  thousand  amperes.  He  has  since 
built  and  patented  an  electrical  furnace  for  the  manufacture 
of  this  calcium  carbide,  in  which  he  heats  a  mixture  of 


294  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

lime  with  some  form  of  carbon,  as  coke  or  coal-tar,  aiid 
obtains  about  one- third  the  weight  of  the  original  materials 
in  carbide.  By  using  limestone  and  coal-dust  it  is  claimed 
that  the  calcium  carbide  can  be  made  for  fifteen  dollars  per 
ton,  while  the  by-products  obtained  will  still  further  reduce 
this  cost.  At  the  Willson  Illuminating  Company's  plant, 
at  Spray,  North  Carolina,  about  one  ton  a  day  is  now  being 
turned  out  from  twelve  thousand  pounds  of  coal-dust  and 
two  thousand  pounds  of  burnt  lime,  using  one  hundred 
and  eighty  horse-power.  The  quality  is  stated  to  be  almost 
perfect,  as  five  and  three-quarters  feet  of  acetylene  gas  are 
producible  from  a  pound  of  the  carbide  out  of  a  possible 
theoretical  5.89  feet.  Negotiations  are  in  progress  between 
the  Electro-Gas  Company  of  New  York  City  and  the 
Niagara  Falls  Power  Company,  for  the  use  of  one  thousand 
electrical  horse-power  to  be  used  in  making  calcium  car- 
bide, with  a  privilege  of  extending  the  use  to  five  thousand 
horse-power. 

As  a  matter  of  fact,  calcium  carbide  sells  in  the  market 
at  this  time  (May,  1895)  for  one  hundred  and  sixty  dollars 
a  ton,  so  that  those  interested  have  a  big  undertaking 
on  their  hands  to  get  it  down  to  fifteen  dollars.  So  san- 
guine are  they,  however,  that  one  of  the  patentees  claims 
that  the  cost  will  eventually  be  brought  as  low  as  five  or 
six  dollars  a  ton.  Be  that  as  it  may,  the  eminent  German 
firm  of  electricians,  Siemens  &  Halske,  have  already  lent 
their  aid  towards  the  establishment  of  a  factory  on  the 
Continent  for  the  manufacture  of  calcium  carbide,  to  be 
used  in  making  acetylene  gas,  showing  that  it  is  their 
judgment  that  this  new  illuminant  is  coming  into  use  at 
once,  and  can  be  sold  at  a  price  that  will  cause  it  to  be  in 
demand. 

Acetylene  requires  to  be  diluted  with  six  hundred  to  one 


ILLUMINATING   GAS.  295 

thousand  per  cent,  of  atmospheric  air,  to  give  forth  the 
best  flame.  If  burned  in  its  natural  condition  without  such 
admixture,  it  gives  off  a  smoky  flame.  Acetylene  is  ex- 
plosive if  too  much  air  be  added,  and  considerable  care 
must  be  taken  in  mixing  them.  Even  expert  chemists 
have  met  with  accidents  through  allowing  themselves  to 

C5  O 

forget  this.  Some  automatic  system  of  regulating  the 
mixture  will  have  to  be  devised  before  the  public  is 
allowed  to  undertake  its  own  mixing  of  the  gases.  The 
carbide  can  be  kept  a  year  or  more  without  deterioration 
if  the  air  is  carefully  excluded.  Small  quantities  are  con- 
veniently stored  in  a  tightly  corked  bottle,  covered  with 
kerosene  or  other  petroleum  oil.  It  then  looks  like  a 
lustrous  black  mineral,  but  if  exposed  to  the  air  it  gradu- 
ally disintegrates  into  a  dull  gray  powder. 

The  ease  with  which  acetylene  gas  can  be  liquefied,  by 
applying  a  moderate  pressure,  makes  it  extremely  probable 
that  after  a  time  it  will  be  handled  and  sold  in  this  form, 
as  we  now  sell  headlight  and  astral  oil.  In  the  liquefying 
apparatus  the  gas,  upon  escaping  from  the  tank  in  which  it 
has  been  generated,  flows  through  a  coil  surrounded  by 
water  to  condense  and  drain  off  as  much  aqueous  vapor  as 
possible.  It  next  passes  through  another  tank  in  which 
pieces  of  calcium  carbide  are  exposed,  in  order  to  rob  the 
gas  of  any  remaining  moisture.  Then  it  is  admitted 
through  another  coil,  surrounded  by  a  cooling  mixture,  and 
finally  into  the  removable  storage  cylinder,  which  is  con- 
nected with  the  apparatus. 

Portable  acetylene  lamps  are  made  with  a  stout  steel 
gas-holder,  about  four  by  sixteen  inches,  fitted  with  a  top 
opening  of  a  size  suitable  to  admit  a  stick  of  calcium  car- 
bide. There  is  an  opening  at  the  bottom  of  the  gas-holder, 
which  is  normally  closed,  which  may  be  used  when  desired 

24* 


296 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


to  clean  out  the  lime  left  by  decomposition.  In  operation 
water  is  poured  into  the  lamp,  and  the  burner  screwed  on. 
The  stick  of  carbide,  being  coated  with  a  slowly-soluble 
glaze,  gives  off  gas  as  slowly  as  desired,  the  burner  auto- 
matically absorbing  such  atmospheric  air  as  is  required 
for  mixing.  Such  a  lamp  will  burn  ten  hours  without 

attention. 

FIG.  71. 


DOMESTIC  ARRANGEMENT  FOR  BURNING  LIQUID  ACETYLENE. 

An  acetylene  burner  emitting  half  a  foot  an  hour  will 
give  a  light  better  than  the  average  gas-jet,  and  the  con- 
sumption of  a  foot  an  hour  gives  a  light  which  is  the 
equivalent  of  the  incandescent  electric  light.  Therefore 
ten  pounds  of  liquefied  acetylene  gas  will  give  a  light  the 
equivalent  of  the  incandescent  electric  light  for  a  period  of 
one  hundred  and  forty-five  hours.  For  this  service  the 


OIL-WELLS  AND    THEIR  PRODUCTS.  297 

average  electric-light  company  would  charge  one  dollar 
and  forty-five  cents.  It  is  likely  that  the  acetylene  gas 
eventually  can  be  made  for  twenty-five  cents  per  liquid  ten 
pounds,  and  it  would  seem  as  though  the  public  might 
expect  to  get  it  for  not  more  than  seventy-five  cents  or  a 
dollar,  until  the  patents  expire,  when  we  shall  buy  calcium 
carbide  as  we  now  buy  coal,  only  at  about  double  the  price, 
and  it  will  furnish  us  light,  heat,  and  power  at  about  one- 
fourth  the  present  cost.  Doubtless  gas  companies  will 
soon  take  to  furnishing  it  in  the  mains  to  consumers,  though 
its  easy  liquefaction  makes  it  so  suitable  for  household  use 
that  it  may  eventually  kill  off  the  coal-gas  industry  alto- 
gether. 


OIL  WELLS   AND   THEIR    PRODUCTS. 

Methods  employed  in  obtaining  Petroleum,  and  in  refining  and 
dividing  Crude  Oil  into  the  Oils  of  Commerce. 

PETROLEUM  will  always  be  an  interesting  fluid,  the 
speculative  element  that  attends  its  search  giving  it  some- 
thing of  the  same  enchantment  that  leads  men  to  dig  for 
gold.  The  first  Pennsylvania  oil-well  was  sunk  in  1859, 
since  which  time  fields  have  been  discovered  in  many 
parts  of  the  world,  and  in  several  of  the  United  States. 
Wyoming  has  several  wells,  and  promises  to  be  a  large 
field.  In  Indiana  the  Terre  Haute  Gas  Company,  in  drill- 
ing for  natural  gas,  struck  a  good  oil-field.  Oil  is  also 
found  near  Toronto  in  Canada.  When  other  nations  take 
to  boring  the  earth  as  generally  as  has  been  done  in  North 
America,  no  doubt  the  world's  supply  will  be  largely 
increased. 


298  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

FIG.  72. 


DIAGRAM  OP  A  STEEL  RIG  FOR  DRILLING  OIL-WELLS.— A,  Upright  plan.  B, 
Ground  plan.  1.  Derrick  frame.  2.  Crown  pulley.  3.  Sand-pump  pulley.  4. 
Derrick  girt.  5.  Braces.  6.  Ladder.  7.  Bailer.  8.  Walking-beam.  9.  Headache 
post.  10.  Bull-wheels.  11.  Band-wheels.  12.  Sand-reel.  13.  Ropes  connecting 
with  steam-engine.  14.  Top  of  well.  15.  Sand-line.  16.  Bull-rope. 

A  great  deal  has  been  written  about  oil-wells,  gas-wells, 
and  artesian  wells  in  general,  but  somehow  the  average 
young  person  has  a  very  indistinct  notion  of  how  they  are 
drilled  or  operated.  Many  think  the  tools  used  in  sinking 


OIL-WELLS  AND    THEIR  PRODUCTS.  299 

resemble  big  gimlets,  that  spiral  their  way  into  the  mar- 
rows of  Mother  Earth.  This  error  arises  from  a  miscon- 
ception of  the  words  "  bore"  and  "  drill,"  which  they  hear 
used  in  this  connection.  They  are  not  familiar  with  the 
rock  drill,  which  is,  strictly  speaking,  not  a  drill  at  all,  but 
a  cold  chisel  that  can  be  made  to  cut  a  hole  in  the  rock  by 
means  of  repeated  rapid  blows.  This  is  the  sort  of  drilling 
that  is  meant  when  oil-wells  are  referred  to,  and  which 
would  be  better  understood  if  it  were  termed  chiselling. 

<5 

Free-falling  tools,  suspended  by  a  cable  and  worked  by 
steam-power,  are  used,  the  weight  of  the  tools  being  so  great 
as  to  give  blows  of  sufficient  force  to  pierce  the  hardest  rock. 

The  methods  of  drilling  for  petroleum  are  mainly  what 
they  were  in  the  sixties,  but  the  tools  have  been  vastly  im- 
proved since  then,  and  the  cost  of  sinking  a  well  is  much 
less.  A  good  oil-well  rig,  with  sufficient  tools  and  piping 
to  put  down  a  two-thon  sand -foot  well,  costs  only  ten  thou- 
sand dollars.  Drilling  is  accomplished  by  raising  and 
dropping  a  heavy  tool  on  the  rock.  This  is  the  same 
principle  that  was  used  in  China  a  thousand  years  ago,  the 
chief  difference  being  that  the  Westerner  uses  steam  and 
choice  tools,  while  the  Celestial  was  satisfied  with  a  rope 
and  man-power.  Over  sixty  thousand  wells  have  been 
sunk  in  the  United  States,  most  of  them  in  Pennsylvania. 
An  outfit  consists  primarily  of  a  derrick,  seventy  to  eighty 
feet  high,  made  either  of  wood  or  steel,  the  latter  being 
the  best,  as  a  matter  of  course. 

Some  of  the  parts  bear  odd  names,  as  headache-post, 
bull-wheel,  and  sand-line.  The  headache-post  probably 
received  this  name  because  of  its  trembling,  the  shaking 
giving  a  headache  to  any  one  obliged  to  stand  near  it. 
The  sand-line  is  so  named  because  it  is  used  to  operate  the 
sand-pump.  The  bull-rope  connects  with  the  bull-wheels, 


300  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

which  are  mounted  on  a  shaft  or  reel  carrying  the  principal 
cable  used  in  rope-drilling. 

The  derrick  has  pulleys  at  the  top,  over  which  ropes  are 
run  to  operate  the  tools.  Drilling  is  begun  by  suspending 
a  tool  from  the  top  of  a  derrick  and  jumping  it  up  and 
down  with  a  rope  until  a  hole  is  made  deep  enough  to 
admit  a  string  of  tools.  These  are  then  made  fast  to  one 
end  of  a  big  walking-beam,  that  gives  an  up-and-down 
stroke  of  perhaps  three  feet.  The  string  of  tools  is  rather 
formidable,  being  usually  about  eighty  feet  long,  and 
weighty  in  proportion.  The  top  tool  is  the  temper-screw, 
which  is  attached  to  that  end  of  the  walking-beam  that  is 
over  the  well,  being  designed  to  clutch  a  cable  and  lower 
it  at  intervals,  and  also  to  admit  of  constant  rotation. 
The  cable  is  slipped  through  the  lower  end  of  the  temper- 
screw  and  fastened  to  a  rope-socket,  connecting  with  the 
sinker-bar,  which  is  usually  a  heavy  iron  rod  twenty  feet 
in  length,  the  weight  serving  to  drive  the  drill. 

There  are  sliding  links  called  jars  on  the  string  of  tools, 
preventing  the  blows  from  jarring  the  machinery  and  in- 
suring the  dropping  of  the  whole  weight  of  the  string 
below  the  jars.  It  is  the  duty  of  a  man  at  the  top  to  keep 
turning  this  string  of  tools  between  blows,  so  that  the  tool's 
edge  may  cut  in  all  directions.  The  upper  part  of  the 
well,  as  sunk,  is  supplied  with  a  pipe  of  eight  inches  inside 
diameter,  called  a  drive-pipe,  because  it  is  driven  in.  A 
temporary  head  is  screwed  to  the  top  of  a  length  and  the 
whole  is  sunk  by  pounding  it  down.  Sometimes  a  big  maul 
is  used  for  this  purpose,  being  raised  and  dropped  by  a  rope 
from  above,  and  sometimes  a  clamp  is  applied  to  the  top 
of  the  string  of  tools,  and  they  are  alternately  raised  and 
dropped  until  the  pipe  is  down  far  enough  to  resume 
drilling. 


OIL-WELLS  AND   THEIR  PRODUCTS. 


301 


When  the  well  has  been  con-  FlG-  73- 

tinued  in  this  manner  perhaps  for 
four  hundred  feet,  a  smaller  size  of 
pipe,  called  the  casing,  is  inserted. 
This  is  usually  of  about  five  and 
a  half  inches  diameter,  and  con- 
stitutes the  major  portion  of  the 
well.  It  is  sunk  into  place  with 
a  disk  of  thin  metal  closing  the 
lower  end.  The  object  of  this  is 
to  allow  the  water  that  gathers  in 
the  well  to  assist  in  buoying  up 
the  great  weight  of  the  many  hun- 
dred feet  of  casing.  When  work 
is  resumed  this  disk  is  easily 
knocked  out.  Numerous  packers 
are  used  to  insure  tightness  be- 
tween the  pipes  and  between  the 
pipe  and  rock.  These  packers 
are  sometimes  made  of  rubber 
and  sometimes  are  simply  inflated 
bags. 

Inside  the  casing  is  placed 
the  tubing,  through  which  the 
working-barrel  or  pump  is  to  be 
worked.  This  tubing  is  made 
anywhere  from  one  to  five  inches 
in  diameter.  A  temporary  disk 
is  also  placed  at  the  bottom  of  the 
tubing  to  keep  out  the  oil  until 
the  workmen  are  ready  for  it  to 
flow.  The  lowest  section  of  tubing  consists  of  a  perforated 
pipe  called  the  anchor. 


MANNER  OP  DRILLING  OIL-WELL. 


302  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

When  a  tool  becomes  dulled  in  the  operation  of  drilling 
it  has  to  be  removed  and  a  sharp  one  inserted  in  its  place. 
At  such  a  time  it  is  customary  to  pump  out  the  sand  in  the 
hole.  Special  pumps  are  made  for  this  purpose,  having 
valves  into  which  the  sand  is  sucked  and  drawn  out. 

For  cleaning  the  hole,  bailers,  sand-pumps,  and  swabs 
are  used.  A  bailer  is  a  tube  with  valves  that  may  be  let 
down,  and  fills  with  water.  When  it  strikes  the  bottom 
the  blow  closes  the  valves,  and  it  is  hauled  up  full.  The 
sand-pump  is  made  on  much  the  same  principle.  A  swab 
is  a  pipe  bearing  a  big  rubber  collar  at  the  lower  end.  It 
is  used  to  remove  paraffine  and  the  heavier  oils  from  the 
well.  There  are  valves  that  allow  the  oil  to  rise  above  the 
rubber  collar,  so  that  it  may  be  drawn  up. 

The  work  of  drilling  is  kept  up  night  and  day,  and  if 
everything  progresses  favorably  it  is  most  monotonous. 
But,  as  a  rule,  all  does  not  run  smoothly.  No  business 
under  the  sun  (or  under  the  ground)  is  more  uncertain 
than  drilling  an  oil-well.  Tools  and  pipes  have  to  be 
operated  from  a  distance  of  hundreds  and  sometimes 
thousands  of  feet. 

In  drilling  through  earth  down  to  the  rock  a  broad,  flat, 
dull  tool  is  used.  For  drilling  in  the  rock  very  heavy  bits 
are  required,  so  large  that  in  handling  them  above-ground 
a  truck  has  to  be  used. 

Holes  have  a  bad  habit  of  working  off  to  one  side,  as 
when  a  glancing  rock  throws  the  tool  into  softer  material. 
This  will  not  do,  and  when  the  workmen  discover  by  the 
jamming  of  the  tool  that  this  is  the  case,  they  have  to 
withdraw  the  string  of  tools,  and  substitute  special  tools 
designed  to  correct  such  faults. 

Sometimes  it  is  found  necessary,  in  drilling  through  rock 
that  has  many  crevices,  to  use  a  winged  bit  that  will  not 


OIL-WELLS  AND    Til  KIR   PRODUCTS.  303 

work  off  sideways  and  make  the  hole  crooked.  If  the 
hole  does  Income  crooked  a  straightening-bit  is  required. 
This  is  u  large  bit,  nearly  the  full  size  of  the  hole,  with  a 
protu IK? ranee  on  one  side.  Patent  collars  are  also  made 
to  be  serewed  on  to  an  anger-stem  at  various  points,  to 
keej)  the  bit  in  line. 

There  is  often  serious  trouble  from  the  loss  of  tools 
that  break  or  become  disjointed.  Any  quantity  of  sj>ecial 
tools  have  been  invented  to  recover  lost  tools.  Some  are 
made  with  an  inverted  bowl  in  the  lower  end,  having  an 
internal  thread  or  female  screw  to  cut  into  the  top  of  the 
lost  tool,  and  obtain  a  grip  upon  it.  Others  take  hold  by 
friction,  or  with  barbs.  There  are  also  grabs,  and  barlxni 
spears  to  take  up  lost  rope,  and  knives  to  cut  off  or  chop 
up  a  rope.  Sometimes  a  tool  Ixvomes  so  jammed  that 
nothing  can  be  done  to  withdraw  it.  A  very  long,  heavy 
tool  called  a  whipstock  is  then  worked  down  to  crowd  the 
lost  tools  off  to  one  side,  and  allow  the  well  to  go  on. 

When  it  is  desired  to  remove  the  casing  from  a  well  for 
any  cause  a  casing-sjwar  is  lowered  into  it.  Proi>crly 
8}>caking  it  is  not  a  spear,  but  a  device  with  an  expanding 
screw,  designed  to  obtain  a  firm  hold  on  the  inside  of  the 
casing.  If  the  casing  is  so  tight  as  to  resist  all  efforts  at 
raising,  however,  a  splitter  or  cutter  is  put  down,  and  the 
casing  so  cut  as  to  allow  the  outside  sediment  to  run  into 
the  well,  when  it  is  possible,  usually,  to  remove  the  casing. 

It  is  not  uncommon  for  the  drive-pipe  to  become  in- 
dented by  outside  pressure,  as  from  a  loosened  rock.  This 
has  to  be  overcome  by  dropping  in  a  big  swedge  with  a 
rounded  end,  and  pounding  it  until  the  pipe  is  bulged  back 
into  shape.  Sometimes  difficulties  arise  which  render  it 
necessary  to  remove  the  casing.  Perhaps  it  is  full  of  sedi- 
ment, and  so  loaded  that  its  weight  cannot  be  manipulated 
N  t  25 


304 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


FIG.  74. 


from  above.  A  casing-splitter  is  then  run  down  to  break 
it  open  and  allow  the  sand  and  water  to  run  out.  If  it  is 
still  too  heavy  after  this,  a  circular  cutter 
is  inserted,  and  a  length  cut  off  that  can 
be  removed.  Thus  the  searcher  for  oil  is- 
often  obliged  to  destroy  the  work  of  weeks, 
and  spoil  expensive  material,  because  of 
some  stoppage  or  accident  that  would  be 
trifling  if  his  tools  were  within  easy  access 
above-ground. 

When  at  last  the  tubing  is  sunk  into- 
good  oil  sand,  the  workmen  remove  their 
drills,  and  lower  a  torpedo,  charged  with 
five  to  twenty  pounds  of  nitro-glycerin.  A 
piece  of  pointed  steel  called  a  go-devil  i& 
then  dropped  to  set  off  the  torpedo.  The 
explosion  is  not  felt  seriously  at  the  sur- 
face, but  a  great  spout  of  oil  comes  surging 
up,  and  the  well  flows  for  a  time  until  the 
pressure  from  below  is  relieved.  The  two- 
inch  tubing  before  referred  to  is  then  sunk 
with  a  packer  at  the  bottom,  and  the 
pressure  thus  caused  sets  the  well  to  flow- 
ing again.  When  this  pressure  ceases  to- 
be  effective  pumping  is  resorted  to  again. 
This  may  continue  for  a  year  or  more,  until 
the  well  is  exhausted,  when  another  tor- 
pedo is  used,  and  a  fresh  supply  obtained. 
Few  wells  last  over  three  or  four  years, 
after  which  time  the  owners  should  have 
acquired  enough  wealth  to  retire. 
The  deepest  bored  well  in  the  world,  so  far  as  known, 
is  in  Silesia  in  Northern  Austria.  The  depth  was  six 


A  TORPEDO. 


OIL-WELLS  AND   THEIR   PRODUCTS.  305 

thousand  five  hundred  and  sixty-eight  feet  at  last  reports, 
and  it  is  designed  to  extend  it  ultimately  to  eight  thousand 
two  hundred  feet.  The  major  portion  of  the  l>oring  is 
only  two  and  three-quarter  inches  in  diameter. 

The  refining  of  petroleum  haslxm  inueh  improved  under 
the  fostering  care  of  the  oil  trust.  In  the  days  of  competi- 
tion among  refineries  all  discoveries  of  value  were  relig- 
iously guarded  to  prevent  competitors  from  receiving  the 
benefit  of  such  improved  methods.  Now  the  superintend- 
ents confer  together  and  exchange  experiences,  so  that  the 
processes  in  all  American  refineries  are  practically  identical, 
and  any  useful  improvement  adopted  by  one  speedily  finds 
its  way  into  all  the  refineries. 

Crude  oil  is  the  name  applied  to  jK'troleum  in  the  condi- 
tion in  which  it  is  obtained  from  the  earth.  To  refine  it  a 
division  of  the  oil  into  its  various  components  is  first 
requisite,  and  the  products  are  then  purified.  From  the 
lighter  parts  of  the  oil  Iwnzine  is  obtained.  The  heavy 
portions  yield  paraffine  and  wax.  The  residuum  is  tar, 
which  when  evaporated  to  dry  ness  leaves  coke. 

The  primary  distilling  is  done  in  a  cylindrical  still  of 
riveted  sheet  iron,  set  on  its  side  with  a  heating  apparatus 
underneath.  A  large  blow-off  valve  in  the  top  prevents 
the  pressure  from  rising  above  one  and  a  half  pounds. 
The  vapor  that  would  thus  be  wasted  is  carried  around 
below  and  used  for  fuel.  The  vajx>r  proper  is  carried 
tli rough  a  large  pipe  to  a  condenser,  where  it  is  cooled  in  a 
long  coil  of  pipe  of  gradually -diminishing  size,  and  then 
flows  on  to  the  monitor.  This  is  a  great  kettle-like  tank, 
having  a  double  bottom  with  gates  or  sliding  doors,  through 
which  the  oil  may  be  flowed  to  various  other  tanks.  The 
first  product  of  the  condenser,  light  benzine,  is  here  exam- 
ined, and  if  all  right  switched  to  its  proper  tank,  and  so 


306  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

on.  Heavy  benzine  is  then  brought  in  from  the  condenser, 
then  water- white  distillate,  etc.,  through  all  the  grades, 
until  the  tar  is  reached,  when  the  fires  are  allowed  to  go 
out,  after  which  the  tar  is  pumped  from  the  still,  and  it  is 
cleaned  for  a  new  run. 

The  products  of  this  first  distillation  are  muddy  and 
foul-smelling.  Some  paraffine  and  some  highly  volatile 
oils  remain  in  the  benzine,  and  the  latter  would  be  danger- 
ous to  consumers.  A  further  distillation  in  steam-stills  is 
therefore  necessary.  This  is  accomplished  after  the  man- 
ner of  the  first  distillation,  except  that  instead  of  igniting 
a  fire  beneath  the  still,  steam  is  turned  in  to  carry  off  the 
lighter  impurities  by  vaporization. 

From  the  steam-still's  monitor  commercial  benzine  is 
drawn.  To  purify  the  remainder  the  oil  is  pumped  into  an 
agitator,  where  the  oil  is  forced  through  it  by  a  blower. 
Sulphuric  acid  is  introduced,  which  causes  the  impurities  to 
settle  after  the  agitation  ceases.  The  impurities  and  acid 
are  then  drawn  off  from  the  bottom,  and  water  is  intro- 
duced, followed  by  further  agitation  with  the  blower.  The 
oil  is  next  drawn  off  into  settling  tanks,  from  which  are 
drawn  the  various  commercial  products  known  as  gasoline, 
naphtha,  headlight,  astral,  water  white,  standard  white,  ship 
oil,  etc. 

The  residue  of  the  stills  is  subjected  to  yet  another  dis- 
tillation to  secure  the  remaining  paraffine  oil  and  its  wax. 
Paraffine  is  drawn  off  in  several  grades,  the  heaviest  being 
a  stiff  product  suitable  for  wagon-grease  or  car-axles.  The 
most  solid  part  of  the  paraffine  is  chilled  until  it  becomes 
like  vaseline.  It  is  then  subjected  to  great  pressure  in  a 
hydraulic  press,  and  the  solid  product  is  a  wax  that  goes 
to  make  paraffine  candles,  chewing  gum,  and  many  similar 
articles.  The  oil  that  flows  from  the  paraffine  press  is 


COAL-HAXDLIXQ   MACHINERY.  307 

very  light  and  fine,  and  is  the  so-called  sewing-machine  or 
bicycle  oil  of  commerce. 

The  residue  in  the  stills,  after  the  paraffin e  is  exhausted, 
is  baked  until  dry,  when  it  becomes  coke,  and  is  cooled 
and  broken  up. 

Thus  are  the  very  numerous  products  of  |>etroleum 
cheaply  manufactured,  nothing  going  to  waste. 


COAL-HANDLING    MACHINERY. 

The  Massive  Automatic  Mechanisms  devised  for  doing  away 
with  Manual  Labor— Gravity  and  Cable  Railways,  Coal- Pockets, 
and  Elevators. 

THE  methods  employed  in  handling  the  enormous  quan- 
tities of  coal  brought  from  the  mines  to  large  consumers 
have  vastly  improved  within  a  few  years.  Formerly  the 
coal  which  was  dumped  from  the  mine-tipple  into  a  lx>at 
was  emptied  from  the  boat  at  its  destination  by  a  gang  of 
sturdy  coal-heavers,  who,  with  much  sweat  of  the  brow, 
each  handled  an  average  of  six  tons  a  day.  The  hoisting 
of  coal,  with  a  roj)e  and  pulley,  by  horse  power  was  the 
first  improvement  on  hand  ix^wer.  Half-barrels  were  used 
as  buckets,  and  the  work  of  the  shoveller  was  confined  to 
filling  the  buckets.  The  poor  horse  was  hard  worked,  and 
had  to  do  a  deal  of  backing,  which  he  hated,  but  the  sys- 
tem was  a  great  improvement  on  using  man  power.  The 
next  advancement  came  about  1857,  when  George  Focht 
devised  an  iron  bucket  so  shaped  that  it  was  top-heavy 
when  filled  and  bottom-heavy  when  empty,  so  that  it  was 
easily  dum|>ed  and  self-righting.  By  using  a  horse  and 
this  tub  the  coal  could  be  removed  at  the  rate  of  twelve 

26* 


308  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

tons  per  man.  The  Dederick  horse  hoisting-machine  was 
the  next  improvement.  This  was  so  rigged  that  the  horse 
walked  in  a  rotary  path,  and  had  no  backing  to  do. 
Hoisting-engines  came  into  use  so  soon  after  this  that 
Dederick's  machine  was  short-lived.  These  engines  were 
used  in  connection  with  gravity  railroads.  The  plan  was 
to  erect  a  tower  on  the  wharf,  hoist  the  coal,  and  tip  it  into 
a  car  which,  when  started,  ran  by  gravity  along  an  in- 
clined railway  to  a  coal-dump.  There  the  force  of  the 
stoppage  was  used  to  tip  the  car,  emptying  it.  The  return 
was  accomplished  by  means  of  a  rope  and  weight,  which 
the  loaded  car  had  raised  on  its  down-grade  journey,  and 
which  developed  sufficient  power  to  return  the  empty  car 
to  the  point  of  starting.  Thus  the  railway  was  automatic, 
but  one  man  being  required  to  start  the  car.  This  method 
is  so  good  that  it  is  still  the  means  used  where  a  moderate 
supply  of  coal  is  received.  For  large  quantities  more 
complicated  mechanisms  are  preferred. 

An  automatic  railway  will  handle  as  much  as  sixty  tons 
of  coal  per  hour.  The  early  makes,  with  five  men — 
three  shovellers  in  the  hold,  an  engineer,  and  a  car-atten- 
dant— usually  took  care  of  about  thirty  tons  a  day  per 
man. 

The  increased  speed  used  in  hoisting  by  steam  made  the 
swinging  about  of  the  heavy  bucket  a  serious  matter. 
This  was  overcome  by  the  use  of  an  elevator  with  inclined 
booms  running  out  over  the  vessel,  so  that  the  hoisting 
was  vertical  until  the  level  of  the  booms  was  reached,  when 
the  bucket  proceeded  up  an  inclined  way  to  the  place  of 
tipping.  With  this  apparatus  larger  buckets  could  be  used, 
and  the  rate  of  unloading  increased  to  forty  tons  per  man 
daily.  The  increase  in  weight  of  the  buckets,  and  the 
faster  travel  of  the  rope,  caused  rapid  wear  on  the  hoist- 


COAL-HAXDLIXG   MACHL\ER}'.  309 

ing-ropes.  Wire  ro|>es  were  tried  as  a  substitute,  but  as 
the  workmen  in  the  hold  found  it  very  convenient  to  start 
loaded  buckets  up  when  ten  or  fifteen  feet  to  one  side  of 
the  hatehwav,  the  sharp  bend  of  the  ro|x»  proved  disastrous 
to  the  wire,  breaking  the  strands.  To  obviate  this,  there 
has  l>een  introduced  an  all-manilla  roj>c,  laid  up  with 
plumbago  and  tallow.  This  roj>e  proved  slipjK'rv  enough 
to  stand  the  strains,  and  is  the  roj>e  used  to-day. 

As  the  principal  exj>ense  for  manual  lalx»r  was  now  in 
the  shovelling  of  the  coal,  inventors  next  turned  their  at- 
tention to  reducing  the  shovellers'  lal>ors.  The  accepted 
device  is  a  steam-shovel,  so  called,  but  which  in  reality  is 
a  double-jawed  grab,  that  descends,  mouth  OJKMI,  upon  the 
coal,  closes  its  jaws,  taking  in  from  one  to  three  tons,  ac- 
cording to  capacity,  closing  tight  on  the  same,  and  starting 
on  its  upward  vovage  without  any  aid  from  the  shovel- 
ler. That  shown  in  Fig.  75  was  built  by  the  C.  W. 
Hunt  Company.  This  steam-shovel  reduced  the  force  in 
the  hold  to  one  man,  whose  duty  was  to  clear  out  the 
corners,  and  assist  the  shovel  in  taking  up  the  last  remains 
of  the  coal  near  his  hatch.  With  a  one-ton  shovel,  the 
average  speed  of  unloading  cargoes  of  coal  is  from  fifty  to 
seventy  tons  an  hour  to  each  hatch,  making  a  total  of 
from  five  to  seven  hundred  tons  a  day,  or,  three  men  being 
employed,  from  one  hundred  and  sixty  to  two  hundred  and 
thirty  tons  per  day  for  each  man — a  gain  of  about  thirty- 
five  to  one  in  forty  years. 

The  cost  of  unloading  a  coaler  is  still  further  reduced  by 
the  use  of  vessels  whose  holds  are  so  sha|>ed  that  the  coal 
naturally  slides  by  gravity  within  reach  of  the  shovels. 
The  cost  of  unloading  large  vessels  varies  between  one  and 
a  half  and  three  cents  a  ton. 

Equally  improved  means  have  been  adopted  for  storing 


310 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


and  conveying  coal  after  unloading.  The  universal  custom 
used  to  be  to  dump  the  coal  on  the  ground  in  great  heaps, 
and  leave  it  in  the  weather.  Then  manufacturers  and 
dealers  who  used  large  quantities  found  that  it  paid  to 


FIG.  75. 


A  STEAM  COAL-SHOVEL  AT  WORK. 


build  sheds,  which,  in  course  of  time,  came  to  be  very 
large,  and  the  teamsters  wasted  as  much  time  in  getting 
the  coal  out  as  it  cost  under  old  methods  to  get  it  in.  To 
obviate  this  trouble,  the  coal-pocket  was  invented.  It  is  a 
storage  building,  made  very  strong,  and  set  up  on  posts  one 


COAL-HANDLING  MACHINERY.  311 

story  above  the  ground,  so  that  teamsters  can  drive  under- 
neath, and  load  their  carts  by  simply  drawing  the  dtx)r  of 
a  chute  in  the  floor  of  the  building  above  them.  Advan- 
tage is  taken  of  this  handling  to  screen  anthracite  coal  by 
sliding  it  across  a  sieve  in  loading.  Thus  it  goes  clean  to 
the  user. 

When  it  is  desired  to  convey  the  coal  more  than  six 
hundred  feet  from  the  wharf,  the  automatic  or  gravity 
railroad  ceases  to  be  serviceable,  and  cable-roads  are  con- 
structed. These  roads  are  also  largely  automatic.  They 
make  use  of  an  endless  cable,  and  a  number  of  small  cars. 
When  a  car  is  loaded,  a  workman  steps  al>oard,  grips  it  to 
the  cable,  and  stejw  off'.  The  car  proceeds  entirely  unat- 
tended, at  a  sj>eed  of  about  three  miles  an  hour,  dumps  its 
load  automatically  at  the  terminus,  or  wherever  the  trijn 
ping  device  has  been  set,  turns  around  a  half  circle,  and 
returns  to  the  point  of  starting,  where  the  workman  again 
steps  on,  unloosens  the  grip,  and  puts  the  car  in  place  for 
reloading.  These  cable- roads  are  run  over  any  sort  of 
ground,  up-hill  and  down,  around  curves,  etc.,  without 
serious  difficulty.  There  is  one  at  West  Point  that  carries 
coal  and  supplies  from  the  wharfs  on  the  Hudson  to  the 
level  of  the  bluff  three-quarters  of  a  mile  away,  at  an 
elevation  of  one  hundred  and  thirty  feet,  over  a  tortuous 
path.  The  expense  of  running  the  road  is  very  slight, 
as  the  cars  require  no  attendance. 

Another  method  of  handling  coal  is  by  conveyors. 
These  are  made  in  several  forms.  The  Hunt  conveyor 
consists  of  a  row  of  iron  buckets  hung  between  endless 
parallel  chains.  These  buckets  are  run  along  very  slowly, 
and  may  be  filled  from  a  continuous  filler  or  by  any  con- 
venient method  suited  to  the  plant.  They  are  dum|)ed 
by  tripping  devices  set  at  the  desired  point,  and  the  line 


312  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

of  empty  buckets  returns  underneath  the  line  of  filled 
buckets. 

The  Dodge  trough  chain-conveyor  utilizes  a  sheet-iron 
trough,  along  which,  at  intervals  of  a  few  feet,  are  dragged 
sheet- iron  scoops,  that  draw  the  coal  along  to  the  place  of 
deposit. 

In  handling  coal  which  has  to  be  stored  on  the  wharf 
for  a  time  the  usual  method  is  to  employ  several  travelling 
elevators,  running  on  a  track,  on  the  edge  of  the  wharf, 
where  their  booms  can  be  swung  out  over  the  vessels.  If 
there  are  cars  ready  to  be  loaded,  the  coal  is  dumped 
directly  into  them,  on  the  opposite  side  of,  or  directly 
underneath,  the  elevator.  But  if  there  are  no  cars,  and 
the  coal  is  to  be  stored,  it  is  dumped  into  a  conveyor  that 
carries  it  up  an  incline,  dropping  it  so  as  to  form  a  great 
conical  heap  on  the  wharf.  There  is  a  separate  pile  for 
each  size  and  kind  of  coal,  and  when  it  is  desired  to  gather 
the  coal  from  the  piles  to  load  into  cars,  a  conveyor  run- 
ning on  the  level  of  the  ground,  and  working  up  against 
the  heap  radially,  will  remove  the  whole  at  a  rapid  rate, 
leaving  the  ground  almost  clean  of  coal,  without  the  aid 
of  hand  labor. 

Several  forms  of  fillers  are  used  for  conveyors,  of  which 
the  spout  continuous  filler  is  perhaps  the  most  ingeni- 
ous. Its  operation  should  be  easily  understood  from  Fig. 
76.  The  conveyor-buckets  move  slowly  and  continu- 
ously on  the  long  chain,  while  a  series  of  guides  revolve 
on  a  short  endless  chain.  The  coal  coming  in  from  the 
spout  cannot  spill  between  the  conveyor  buckets,  owing  to 
the  guides,  and  the  arrangement  insures  each  bucket  being 
loaded  in  a  level  and  even  manner. 

The  elevated  railroads  have  a  specially -devised  method 
of  storing  coal  for  the  convenient  loading  of  locomotives. 


COA  L-HA XDLL\G   MA CHIXER )'. 


313 


A  large  coal-pocket  is  erected  near  the  tracks.  From  this 
run  endless  conveyors  to  a  smaller  coal-pocket  built 
above  the  tracks.  The  conveyor-buckets  pass  under  the 
large  coal-jxK'ket  and  receive  a  supply  of  coal  from  one  or 
more  chutes.  Then  they  pass  to  the  top  of  the  small  coal- 
pocket,  where  they  dump  their  loads.  The  locomotives 


THE  C.  W.   HUNT  COMPANY'S  CONTINUOUS  FILLER. 

can  stop  under  the  small  coal -pocket  and  take  in  a  tender- 
load  of  coal  through  a  chute  without  delaying  a  train  any 
longer  than  the  ordinary  stoppage  at  a  station. 

In  electric-light  stations,  gas- works,  etc.,  it  is  usually 
desired  to  get  rid  of  the  ashes  as  well  as  bring  in  the  coal. 


314 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


For  this  purpose  the  endless  conveyors,  after  bringing  in 
coal  and  depositing  it  at  the  boilers,  are  led  to  the  under  side 
of  the  ash-pit,  from  which  they  receive  the  ashes  by  means 
of  a  filler,  and  carry  them  to  a  place  of  deposit,  usually  an 
elevated  pocket  outside  of  the  buildings,  where  they  are 
left  while  the  conveyors  continue  their  round.  For  out- 
side conveyors  the  C.  W.  Hunt  Company  manufacture  a 
patent  non  freezing  engine,  so  constructed  as  to  be  with- 
out pockets  in  which  water  can  lodge  and  freeze. 

FIG.  77. 


THE  HUNT  ELEVATORS  UNLOADING   A  SHIP. 


Ocean  steamers  use  the  conveyors  to  bring  the  coal  from 
the  bunkers  to  the  boilers,  doing  away  with  coal-passers. 
Steamers  are  also  loaded  with  coal  by  means  of  the  con- 
veyors, which  are  run  direct  from  dump-cars  over  the  free- 
board of  the  vessel  and  down  the  hatch.  The  coal  gets  a 
fall  of  two  or  three  feet  in  dumping,  which  does  not  break 
it  materially.  Another  mode  of  loading  steamers  is  by 
means  of  floating  elevators,  which  are  run  between  the 
steamer  and  the  coal-barge  from  which  the  coal  is  taken, 
and  hoist  the  coal  directly  into  the  steamer. 


COAL-irANDLIXG   MACHINERY.  315 

In  addition  to  the  machinery  described,  a  great  variety 
of  more  or  less  ingenious  dump-ears  are  manufactured, 
and  a  recent  car  has  been  brought  into  use  lor  depositing 
its  load  all  in  one  small  spot,  as  the  mouth  of  a  chute, 
without  tipping  the  car.  This  is  accomplished  by  build 
ing  the  car  very  high  for  its  width  and  length,  and  placing 
the  discharge  gate  at  one  comer,  which  is  sufficiently  lower 
than  the  other  corners  to  cause  all  the  coal  to  slide  that  way 
by  gravity. 

Where  there  are  two  thousand  five  hundred  tons  or 
less  of  coal  handled  annually  bv  a  manufacturing  concern 
the  automatic  or  gravity  railway  answers  all  pur|>oses, 
provided  the  distance  is  not  great.  Up  to  five  thousand 
tons  a  year  an  improved  hoisting  engine  and  self-dumping 
buckets  of  half  a  ton  capacity  should  be  used,  together 
with  a  substantial  coal-pocket  If  over  five  thousand 
tons  a  year  are  received,  it  pays  to  put  in  a  steam- 
shovel,  and  for  ten  thousand  tons  or  more  the  very  best 
outfit  obtainable  is  the  cheaj>est.  Where  the  cargoes  are 
large,  and  the  vessels  in  a  hurry,  as  is  apt  to  be  the  case 
at  the  jK)rts  on  the  Great  Lakes,  where  steamers  tow  up  a 
line  of  barges  at  a  time,  it  is  desirable  to  use  several  ele- 
vators with  the  largest  size  steam-shovels,  working  all  the 
hatches  at  one  time.  The  Lehigh  Coal  and  Iron  Company, 
at  West  Superior,  Wisconsin,  have  nine  elevators  at  one 
plant,  capable  of  working  in  almost  any  combination,  as 
from  three  hatches  in  each  of  three  vessels,  or  from  five 
hatches  in  one  vessel  and  four  in  another.  This  is  all 
done  to  save  time,  as  vessel  owners  prefer  to  do  business 
with  those  who  detain  them  least. 

These  elevators  are  built  with  interchangeable  parts  in 
different  standard  sizes,  according  to  the  work  expected  of 
them.  The  smaller  size  is  suitable  for  handling  buckets 

26 


316  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

of  less  than  one  ton  capacity.  The  medium  size  is  for  the 
regulation  steam-shovel  that  makes  so  much  speed.  A 
special  size  is  built  for  handling  ten-ton  boxes  of  coal,  a 
form  sometimes  used  in  shipping  from  cars  to  vessels.  In 
all  the  styles  horizontal  booms  are  used  that  swing  laterally 
so  as  to  cover  at  least  two  hatches  of  a  vessel  without 
moving  the  elevator.  The  chock  on  a  set  of  booms  is 
movable,  so  that  the  bucket  can  be  made  to  descend  at  any 
point  from  the  extreme  outer  end  of  the  booms  to  the  inner 
side  of  the  vessel.  In  operation,  the  engine  hoists  the 
bucket  vertically  from  the  hold  of  the  vessel  until  the 
running-block  attached  to  the  tub  strikes  the  truck  on  the 
projecting  booms.  As  the  engine  continues  to  hoist  the  tub 
and  truck,  both  run  up  the  boom  until  over  the  hopper  or 
car,  when  the  bucket  strikes  a  dumping  attachment,  which 
deposits  the  coal.  The  rope  is  then  slackened,  permitting 
the  truck  and  the  bucket  to  run  down  the  booms  until  the 
truck  strikes  the  chock,  which  arrests  the  motion  of  the 
truck.  As  the  engine  continues  to  pay  out  the  rope,  the 
bucket  then  descends  vertically  into  the  hold  of  the  vessel, 
when  the  steam-shovel  fills  itself  with  coal.  In  hoisting 
with  a  steam-shovel,  but  one  is  used  to  an  elevator ;  but 
if  tubs  are  used,  three  to  five  of  them  may  be  operated  at 
once,  as  they  are  not  run  with  the  speed  of  the  shovel. 

When  docks  have  a  long  water-front,  the  elevators  are  set 
on  double-flange  wheels  running  on  a  track  parallel  with 
the  water-  front,  or  on  top  of  the  trestle-work  or  the  build- 
ing. The  engine  is  placed  inside  the  elevator,  and  the 
whole  affair  can  be  moved  to  any  part  of  the  wharf-front. 
In  this  way  the  whole  front  is  available  for  hoisting,  and 
only  as  many  elevators  are  bought  as  may  be  required  at 
one  time. 

Very  recently  a  plan  has  been  suggested  for  pulverizing 


ICE-MAKING   AND  REFRIGERATING.  317 

all  the  coal  at  the  mines  and  .sending  it  through  pipe-lines 
bv  a  flood  of  water.  Coal  is  very  little  heavier  than  water, 
and  can  be  carried  along  readily.  On  receipt  it  is  pro- 
posed to  subject  the  powdered  coal  to  hydraulic  pressure, 
moulding  it  into  lumps  of  any  desired  si/c.  If  tins  shall 
prove  feasible  the  methods  of  coal-handling  may  be  changed 
entirely,  and  the  railway  monopolies  that  now  control  the 
output  of  coal  may  give  way  to  a  pi|>c-line  monopoly  that 
will  strive  to  emulate  the  Standard  Oil  Company. 


ICE-MAKING   AND    REFRIGERATING. 

The  Theory  and  Practice  of  manufacturing  Artificial  Cold— Value 
of  Natural  Gas  in  this  Connection. 

THE  manufacture  of  ice  and  the  production  of  machines 
for  causing  artificial  cold  have  increased  to  large  proportions 
during  the  last  generation,  and  numerous  and  varied  mechan- 
isms have  been  invented  for  assisting  the  commercial  prog- 
ress of  the  industry.  In  order  that  the  reader  may  under- 
stand how  these  machines  operate,  a  slight  knowledge  of 
the  physical  laws  on  which  they  are  based  is  requisite.  It 
should  be  understood  that  permanent  gases,  such  as  hydro- 
gen, or  compound  gases,  as  the  air,  are  only  forms  of 
matter,  which,  if  subjected  to  sufficient  pressure  and  cold, 
become  condensed  and  liquid.  Steam  condenses  into  water 
when  below  a  temperature  of  212°  F.,  while  ammonia 
boils  at  —  28J°.  By  subjecting  ammonia  to  pressure  its 
boiling  point  is  raised  in  proportion  to  the  pressure.  It 
follows  that  by  taking  ammonia  gas  and  subjecting  it  to 
pressure,  thus  enormously  increasing  its  heat,  and  then 


318  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

pouring  cold  water  on  the  vessel  containing  the  compressed 
ammonia,  we  shall  liquefy  it,  and  if  we  later  allow  the 
liquefied  ammonia  to  expand  by  removing  the  pressure,  it 
falls  very  rapidly  in  temperature,  losing  theoretically  as 
much  heat  as  we  added  to  it  by  compressing.  On  this 
principle  a  large  number  of  convenient  gases  may  be  used 
to  produce  artificial  cold. 

Saline  solutions  and  endothermic  combinations  are  the 
features  which  have  been  employed  by  some  in  the  manu- 
facture of  similar  machines,  but  such  have  not  been  mark- 
edly successful. 

Another  method  has  been  the  vaporizing  of  a  more  or 
less  volatile  liquid  in  a  vacuum,  and  afterwards  allowing 
the  escape  of  the  vapor  into  the  atmosphere,  or  absorbing 
it  in  some  manner.  This  is  called  the  absorption  system, 
and  was  introduced  by  a  Frenchman  named  Carre,  whose 
ingenuity  brought  him  considerable  celebrity,  but  his  sys- 
tem proved  both  dangerous  .  and  complicated,  and  was 
finally  abandoned  by  him.  He  used  water  as  the  volatile 
liquid,  and  sulphuric  acid  as  the  absorbent.  His  method 
was  improved  by  Blythe  &  Southby,  by  substitution  of 
condensation  for  absorbtion  of  the  vapors,  but  the  product 
was  so  small  that  it  did  not  pay  expenses.  The  Reece, 
Stanley,  Pontifex  &  Wood,  and  Kropff  machines  are  all  of 
this  order,  and  open  to  the  defects  of  the  system,  which 
has  failed  of  general  adoption,  though  because  of  the 
cheaper  price  this  class  of  machines  has  had  some  sale. 

The  process  generally  recognized  as  practical,  and  most 
widely  employed,  is  that  of  the  expansion  of  a  compressed 
gas,  or  of  a  liquefied  vapor  cooled  during  its  compression. 
Two  classes  of  machines  come  under  this  head,  those  which 
employ  compressed,  and  those  which  use  liquefied,  gases. 
Those  that  liquefy  the  gas  are  called  compression-machines 


ICE-MAKING   AND  REFRIGERATING.  319 

when  the  liquefaction  is  accomplished  by  compression,  and 
if  a  solution  is  used  they  are  termed  affinity-machines.  Air 
frigoric  machines  are  much  used  for  cooling  the  holds  of 
vessels  ibr  the  preservation  of  fruits  and  meats  and  simi- 
lar uses  where  a  great  degree  of  cold  is  not  demanded 
or  where  the  amount  of  production  is  a  secondary  con- 
sideration. 

Machines  utilizing  gases  liquefied  by  compression  are  the 
most  common  in  use,  which  is  equivalent  to  saying  that 
they  are  the  best  for  general  purj>oses.  In  these  the  gas  is 
liquefied  during  compression  and  vajK)ri/xHl  during  expan- 
sion. They  have  the  advantages  over  air  machines  that 
they  occupy  less  space  and  yield  a  larger  product.  Among 
the  gases  which  are  used  or  may  l>e  used  in  them  are  ether 
in  various  forms,  ethylene,  carbonic  acid,  chloride  of 
methyl,  and  ammonia.  The  ether  machines,  despite  the 
advantages  of  low  pressure,  have  gone  out  of  use  as  dan- 
gerous. They  furnished  about  fifteen  jxmnds  of  ice  to  a 
pound  of  coal. 

Chloride  of  methyl  is  used  in  the  Crespio  machines. 
The  Pictet,  Reece,  and  Maekay  machines  make  use  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  which  liquefies  at  a  low  pressure,  and  is 
inflammable.  They  are  particularly  adapted  for  use  in 
countries  where  the  temperature  is  high  all  the  year  round. 
Carbonic  acid  frigoric  machines  are  used  to  some  extent, 
the  compressing  mechanism  required  being  very  small, 
about  one-fifteenth  the  size  of  ammonia-compressors.  As 
they  are  run  under  much  higher  pressure,  this  advantage  is 
somewhat  nullified. 

The  gaseous  ammonia  frigoric  machines  command  the 

largest  market,  though  the  mechanism  is  not  the  cheapest. 

They  employ  anhydrous  ammonia,  that  is  ammonia  free 

from  water,  and  this  is  obtained  by  distillation  of  the  com- 

u  26* 


320  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

mon  form  of  ammonia.  They  can  be  relied  on  to  produce 
about  thirty -two  pounds  of  ice  per  pound  of  coal  con 
sunied.  Before  describing  these  in  detail  it  may  be  well 
to  understand  just  what  ammonia  is.  Chemically  it  con- 
tains three  parts  of  hydrogen  and  one  of  nitrogen.  It  is 
obtained  principally  from  the  ammoniacal  liquid  manufac- 
tured as  a  by-product  in  the  making  of  coal-gas,  and  from 
the  liquid  manure  of  stables.  It  boils  or  becomes  gaseous- 
at  28|°  below  zero. 

In  its  simplest  form  an  ammonia  frigoric  machine  con- 
sists of  three  parts — an  evaporator  or  congealer,  in  which 
the  ammonia  is  vaporized ;  a  suction  or  compressor  pump 
for  sucking  in  or  aspirating  the  gas  formed  in  the  evapo- 
rator as  fast  as  formed  ;  a  liquefier  or  condenser,  into  which 
the  gas  is  forced  by  the  pump,  and  by  the  pressure  of  the 
pump,  combined  with  the  cold  maintained  in  the  condenser 
by  flowing  water,  reconverted  into  a  liquid,  to  be  again 
used  in  the  congealer.  The  compressor-pump  and  con- 
denser are  required  only  because  ammonia  is  expensive  and 
must  be  used  over  and  over.  To  utilize  the  cold  produced 
by  this  form  of  apparatus  either  of  two  methods  is  em- 
ployed— the  brine  system  or  the  direct-expansion  system. 
In  the  brine  system  the  congealer  contains  numerous 
ammonia-evaporating  coils,  that  are  surrounded  by  a  strong 
brine  made  with  common  salt,  which  does  not  freeze  readily. 
The  evaporation  or  expansion  of  the  ammonia  in  these 
coils  robs  the  brine  of  heat,  the  process  of  thus  storing 
cold  in  the  brine  going  on  continuously,  and  being  regula- 
table  by  a  gas-expansion  valve.  This  brine  may  then  'be 
circulated  by  means  of  a  pump  throughout  the  rooms  or 
apartments  which  it  is  desired  to  cool,  much  after  the  man- 
ner in  which  we  circulate  heat  in  steam-pipes.  In  the 
direct-expansion  system  there  is  no  brine  used,  but  the 


ICE-MAKING   AND  REFRIGERATING. 


321 


expansion-  or  eva|>orating-coils  are  placet!  directly  in  the 
rooms  which  it  is  desired  to  cool,  so  that  the  air  is  reduced 
in  temperature. 


Fio.  78. 


SECTIONAL  VIEW  OF  THE  FRICK  COMPANY'S  ICE-MAKING  MACHINE. 

The  brine  system  is  considered  preferable  to  the  direct- 
expansion  system  for  several  reasons.  It  requires  the  use 
of  less  ammonia,  a  saving  in  first  cost.  The  danger  of 


322  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

leakage  of  the  ammonia  is  much  less,  since  it  is  all  contained 
in  one  room,  or  two  at  most,  and  not  distributed  all  over 
the  premises.  Leaking  ammonia  is  deleterious  to  goods  as 
well  as  to  human  beings.  The  pumping  machinery  can  be 
stopped  at  night,  with  very  little  increase  of  temperature, 
whereas  in  the  direct-expansion  system  the  frost  on  the 
pipes  is  depended  upon  to  maintain  the  cold  at  night,  and 
tends  to  melt  and  fill  the  rooms  with  moisture  that  is  apt 
to  be  damaging  to  goods. 

The  machines  used  for  refrigerating  by  the  above- 
described  process  are  a  compressor-pump  and  steam-engine 
combined,  the  one  shown  in  the  illustration  being  the 
Eclipse  type,  made  by  the  Frick  Company,  of  Waynes- 
borough,  Pennsylvania.  The  larger  sizes  are  about  eigh- 
teen feet  high,  and  have  an  ice-making  capacity  of  one 
hundred  and  fifty  tons  every  twenty- four  hours. 

The  manufacture  of  ice  in  the  United  States  is  largely 
confined  to  the  Southern  States,  for  the  obvious  reason  that 
in  the  North  it  is  cheaper  to  gather  it  and  store  it  in  ice- 
houses. Machine-made  ice  has  the  advantage  of  being 
much  purer  than  river-ice,  since  the  water  used  is  easily 
filtered,  distilled,  or  otherwise  rendered  pure  before  freez- 
ing. Manufacturers  exhibit  photographs  of  cakes  a  foot 
or  more  in  thickness  to  show  how  glass-like  and  trans- 
parent it  is,  objects  in  the  rear  being  distinguished  with 
great  ease.  It  is  claimed  that  artificial  ice  requires  more 
time  to  melt  than  natural  ice,  because  of  its  density,  absence 
of  air,  and  low  temperature.  Anyway,  it  is  a  fact  that  the 
ice-machines  are  every  year  creeping  farther  North,  and 
manufacturers  of  ice-machines  claim  that  they  will  some 
day  drive  out  the  natural  article. 

An  ice-making  plant  is  expensive,  and  consists  of  an 
ice- machine,  with  a  pair  of  single-acting  gas  compressor 


ICE-MAKLVG  AND  REFRIGERATING.  323 

pumps,  and  steam-engine,  with  separators,  panics,  and 
connections;  an  ammonia-condenser,  with  liquefying  coils, 
etc. ;  system  of  tanks,  ice-moulds,  evaporating  coils,  wood 
grating  and  covers,  cranes,  thawing  apparatus,  agitating 
apparatus,  distributing  pi|>cs,  shafting,  etc. ;  distilling  and 
purifying  system,  consisting  of  a  separator,  purifier,  dis- 
tiller, and  various  tanks  and  filters  ;  steam-boiler  plant, 
with  pumps,  etc.  ;  water-pumping  system,  with  pumps  and 
pipes.  If  a  cold  storage-room  system  is  desired  in  addi- 
tion, then  a  brine-tank  and  pump,  with  a  system  of  pijK's, 
are  also  required. 

Ice  is  made  in  two  forms,  by  the  can  system  or  the  plate 
system,  the  names  indicating  the  form  of  the  ice  produced. 
Can  moukls  are  made  to  hold  from  one  hundred  to  three 
hundred  jMHinds,  or  slightly  more  to  allow  for  waste  Ix-fore 
reaching  the  consumer.  These  cans  are  filled  with  distilled 
water  from  a  tank  and  stood  in  a  row  Ix'twecn  ammonia- 
pipes  in  a  tank  of  cold  brine.  When  projierly  congealed, 
the  ice  in  the  cans  is  carried  out  by  overhead  travelling 
cranes.  In  making  ice  by  the  plate  system  a  water-power 
is  desirable,  as  no  steam- or  distilling-apparatus  is  required 
to  make  transparent  ice,  and  a  steam-engine  and  Inuler  are 
therefore  non-essential.  Cakes  are  made  eight  by  sixteen 
feet  in  size  and  twelve  to  sixteen  inches  thick.  From 
eight  to  twelve  days  are  required  to  freeze  one  of  these 
great  cakes,  and  they  are  handled  by  cranes  as  readily  as 
the  can-ice.  As  the  plate  system  is  the  latest  thing  in  the 
business,  a  description  of  its  operation  is  in  order. 

The  tanks  being  cleansed  and  everything  in  good  work- 
ing shape,  the  ice-compartments  are  filled  within  about  nine 
inches  of  the  top  with  water  drawn  through  filters.  The 
freezing-cells  are  filled  with  brine,  the  liquid  ammonia 
expansion  valves  are  ojxuied,  and  carefully  watched  and 


324  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

adjusted.  A  much  larger  feed  is  required  at  the  start,  as 
the  water,  brine,  tanks,  etc.,  are  all  comparatively  warm, 
and  will  evaporate  a  larger  quantity  of  ammonia  in  the 
coils  than  after  the  water  has  been  cooled  to  the  freezing- 
point  and  the  formation  of  ice  begins.  The  coils  then 
require  a  reduced  feed  to  prevent  heavy  frosting  on  the 
suction  side.  To  ascertain  when  the  ice  is  of  proper  thick- 
ness, there  are  oblong  holes  left  in  the  compartment  covers, 
through  which  a  gauge  can  be  inserted  to  test  the  ice. 
When  the  ice-cakes  in  a  compartment  have  formed  on 
either  side  and  extended  within  about  four  inches  of  each 
other,  it  is  time  to  shut  off  the  ammonia  valves,  as  the  ice- 
building  will  continue  for  ten  or  twelve  hours  longer  because 
of  the  stored  cold,  and  will  add  perhaps  another  inch  to 
the  thickness  of  the  cakes.  The  brine  is  then  drawn  off 
from  the  tanks,  also  any  turbid  water  remaining  in  the 
freezing  compartment.  The  brine-coils  are  then  filled  with 
water  from  a  thawing-hydrant,  at  a  temperature  of  50°  to 
60°.  This  is  done  to  loosen  the  cakes  from  the  compart- 
ments, to  which  they  are  frozen  fast.  Chains  are  then 
passed  around  the  great  cakes  and  they  are  hoisted  out. 
The  ice-plate  is  taken  at  once  to  the  cutting-table  and 
sawed  up  into  commercial  sizes.  This  system  is  used  by 
the  Consumers'  Ice  Company  of  New  Orleans,  which  is 
believed  to  have  the  largest  ice-factory  in  the  world. 

Within  a  year  or  two  it  has  occurred  to  some  American 
engineers  that  a  natural-gas  well  afforded  the  most  con- 
venient and  cheapest  means  of  manufacturing  ice  to  be 
found  anywhere.  Probably  this  idea  was  late  in  develop- 
ing because  the  gas- wells  are  mostly  found  where  natural 
ice  is  plenty  and  cheap.  However  that  may  be,  a  company 
was  formed  in  Indianapolis  in  1894  for  making  ice  and 
establishing  cold-storage  facilities  in  connection  with  nat- 


ALUMIXCM,  THE  METAL   OF   THE  FUTURE.        325 

ural  gas.  It  must  lx>  remembered  that  natural  gas  issues 
from  the  wells  at  a  pressure  sometimes  a.s  great  as  twenty 
atmospheres,  and  at  the  uniform  tenijH'rature  of  4'J°. 
According  to  Pictet's  formula,  by  expanding  a  g:is  from  a 
pressure  of  twenty  atmospheres  to  that  of  one  atmosphere, 
its  temjH'rature  would  be  reduced  .'US0  Fahr.  From  this 
it  is  figured  that  a  thousand  cubic  feet  of  gas,  allowed  to 
expand  in  coils  in  freezing  tanks,  ought  to  produce  a  result 
of  seventv-two  pounds  of  good  ice,  if  we  assume  that  the 
initial  temjxTature  of  the  water  is  02°.  An  average  gas- 
well  may  be  said  to  supply  a  million  and  a  half  cubic  feet 
per  day,  which  would  give  a  theoretical  product  of  fifty 
tons  of  ice  per  diem — or,  say,  a  practical  result  of  thirty 
tons  a  day,  at  a  cost  of  about  eighty  cents  a  ton.  This 
would  detract  nothing  from  the  value  of  the  gas  for  heat- 
ing and  lighting,  and  would  bo  a  clear  profit.  It  is  quite 
within  reason  to  presume  that  within  a  few  years  the  gas- 
wells  of  Indiana  and  Ohio  will  supply  those  States  and 
outlying  territory  with  all  the  ice  they  can  use,  just  as 
they  now  furnish  nearly  all  the  required  heat  and  a  large 
share  of  the  light. 


ALUMINUM,  THE  METAL  OF  THE 
FUTURE. 

The  Process  by  which  it  is   now  obtained,  its  many  Valuable 
Qualities,  and  the  Numerous  Uses  to  which  it  is  being  applied. 

THAT  aluminum  is  destined  to  supersede  steel,  iron, 
copper,  or  any  other  one  of  the  useful  metals,  no  one  who 
has  given  attention  to  the  subject  will  for  a  moment  con- 
tend. It  has,  however,  a  great  variety  of  valuable  uses, 
and  fills  a  long-felt  want.  Its  value  lies  in  its  freedom 


326  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

from  corrosion,  its  light  weight,  and  its  handsome  appear- 
ance. It  has  long  been  known  to  exist,  but  only  within 
a  few  years  has  it  been  possible  to  produce  it  at  a  moderate 
cost,  electric  decomposition  being  made  use  of  to  secure 
the  metal.  It  is  now  manufactured  on  a  large  scale  by  the 
Pittsburg  Reduction  Works  at  Pittsburg,  and  will  shortly 
be  made  on  a  larger  scale  at  their  new  works  at  Niagara 
Falls.  It  is  also  made  at  Spray,  North  Carolina,  by  the 
Willson  Aluminum  Company,  and  at  Lamont,  Illinois, 
by  the  Illinois  Pure  Aluminum  Company.  In  this  coun- 
try the  Hall  process  is  principally  used,  and  in  Europe  the 
Herault-Kiliani  and  Minet  processes. 

The  Hall  process,  w^hich  takes  its  name  from  Charles  M. 
Hall,  of  Oberlin,  Ohio,  the  inventor,  is  thus  described  by 
him : 

"  I  form  an  electrolyte,  or  bath,  of  the  fluorides  of  cal- 
cium, sodium,  and  aluminum,  the  fluorides  of  calcium  and 
sodium  being  obtained  in  the  form  of  fluor-spar  and  cryo- 
lite, respectively,  and  the  fluoride  of  aluminum  being 
obtained  by  saturating  hydrated  alumina  (A12HO6)  with 
hydrofluoric  acid.  The  compound  resulting  from  the  mix- 
ture of  the  above-mentioned  fluorides,  which  is  represented 
approximately  by  the  formula  Na2Al2F8  -f-  CaAl2F8,  is 
placed  in  a  suitable  vessel,  preferably  formed  of  metal  and 
lined  with  pure  carbon,  for  the  purpose  of  preventing  the 
admixture  of  any  foreign  material  with  the  bath  or  with 
the  aluminum  when  reduced.  The  vessel  is  placed  in  a 
furnace,  and  subjected  to  sufficient  heat  to  fuse  the  mate- 
rials placed  therein.  Two  electrodes  of  any  suitable  ma- 
terial, preferably  carbon  when  pure  aluminum  is  desiredr 
and  connected  to  the  positive  and  negative  poles  of  any 
suitable  generator  of  electricity,  preferably  a  dynamo- 
electric  machine,  are  placed  in  the  fused  bath,  or,  if  desired, 


ALUMINUM,  THE  METAL   OF  THE  FUTURE.        327 

the  carlxm-lined  vessel  may  be  employed  as  the  negative 
electrode.  Alumina  in  the  1'orin  of  bauxite,  anhydrous  ox- 
ide of  aluminum,  or  any  other  suitable  form  of  alumina, 
preferably  the  pure  anhydrous  oxide  A12O3  artificially  pre- 
pared, is  then  placed  in  the  bath,  and,  being  dissolved 
thereby,  aluminum  is  reduced  by  the  action  of  an  electric 
current  at  the  negative  electrode,  and,  being  fused  by  the 
heat  of  the  bath,  sinks  down  to  the  lx>ttom  of  the  vessel, 
the  bath  Ix'ing  of  a  less  s|>ecific  gravity  than  the  alumi- 
num. This  difference  in  specific  gravity  is  an  important 
feature  of  mv  process,  as  the  superincumbent  bath  serves 
to  protect  the  aluminum  from  oxidation.  The  oxygen 
of  the  alumina  is  lilx'rated  by  the  action  of  the  electric 
current  at  the  |x>sitive  electrode,  and,  when  the  latter  is 
formed  of  carbon  combines  therewith  and  escajx^s  in  the 
form  of  carbonic  oxide  (CO)  or  carlxmir  acid  (CX)2). 

"  As  the  aluminum  is  reduced,  more  alumina  is  added, 
so  that  the  bath  may  lx>  maintained  in  a  saturated  condi- 
tion with  the  fused  alumina.  The  addition  of  more  alumina 
than  can  be  dissolved  at  one  time  is  not  detrimental,  pro- 
vided the  bath  is  not  chilled,  as  such  excess  will  sink  to 
the  bottom  and  be  taken  up  by  the  bath,  as  required. 

"  The  projx)rtions  of  the  materials  employed  in  forming 
the  bath  or  the  electrolyte  are  approximately  as  follows : 
Fluoride  of  calcium,  two  hundred  and  thirty-four  parts  ; 
cryolite,  the  double  fluoride  (NagAljF,,),  four  hundred  and 
twenty-one  parts;  and  fluoride  of  aluminum,  eight  hun- 
dred and  forty-five  parts  by  weight.  These  proportions, 
however,  can  be  widely  varied  without  materially  changing 
the  efficiency  of  the  bath.  During  the  reduction  of  the 
aluminum  the  positive  electrode,  when  formed  of  carlx>n, 
is  slowly  consumed  and  must  be  renewed  from  time  to 
time,  but  the  bath  or  electrolyte  remains  unchanged  for  a 
o  27 


328  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

long  time.  In  time,  however,  a  partial  clogging  occurs, 
which,  however,  does  not  render  the  bath  wholly  ineffec- 
tive, but  does  necessitate  an  increase  in  the  electromotive 
force  of  the  reducing  current,  the  resistance  of  the  bath 
being  increased  in  proportion  to  the  degree  to  which  the 
bath  becomes  clogged,  thereby  increasing  the  cost  of  reduc- 
tion. In  order  to  entirely  prevent  any  clogging  of  the 
bath,  I  add  approximately  three  or  four  per  cent,  (more  or 
less)  of  calcium  chloride  to  the  bath  or  electrolyte  herein- 
before described.  As  the  addition  of  the  calcium  chloride 
prevents,  as  stated,  any  clogging  or  increase  of  resistance 
in  the  bath,  it  can  be  used  continuously  without  renewals 
•or  any  additions,  except  such  as  may  be  needed  to  replace 
loss  by  evaporation,  and  without  increasing  the  electro- 
motive force  of  the  reducing  current,  and,  further,  the  addi- 
tion of  the  calcium  chloride  enables  each  atom  of  carbon 
of  the  positive  electrode  to  take  up  two  atoms  of  oxygen, 
forming  carbonic  acid  (CO2),  thereby  reducing  the  amount 
of  carbon  consumed  in  proportion  to  the  amount  of  alu- 
minum produced.  The  calcium  chloride  being  quite  vola- 
tile is  subject  to  loss  faster  than  the  rest  of  the  bath,  and 
must  be  renewed  occasionally  on  this  account. 

"  In  reducing  aluminum,  as  above  described,  I  prefer  to 
-employ  an  electric  current  of  about  six  volts  electromotive 
force,  but  the  electromotive  force  can  be  varied  within 
large  limits/7 

Aluminum,  the  metal,  thus  obtained  from  alumina,  the 
«arth,  which  is  very  common,  has  the  following  proper- 
ties : 

1.  Extreme  lightness.  A  cubic  foot  weighs  one  hundred 
and  sixty-eight  pounds,  while  the  same  quantity  of  cast  iron 
weighs  four  hundred  and  forty-four  pounds ;  bronze,  five 
hundred  and  twenty-five  pounds ;  wrought  iron,  four  hun- 


ALUMINUM,  THE   METAL   OF   THE  FUTURE.         3 *29 

<lrc<l  and  eighty  jxmnds  ;  and  structural  steel,  four  hun- 
dred and  ninety  pounds. 

2.  High  resistance  to  corrosion.  Almost  all  of  the  com- 
mon  metals  rust  when  ex|x>sed  to  a  moist  atmosphere,  hut 
aluminum  is  scarcely  affected  after  prolonged  exjx>sure. 

•5.  Tensile  strength,  ranking  next  to  steel  and  iron  if  the 
comparison  1x3  made  by  weight  and  not  by  bulk.  Its  tor- 
sional  strength  is  alxmt  the  same  as  that  of  eopper. 

4.  Conductivity,  rendering  it  useful  for  electrical  pur- 
jx>scs.     Here   it  stands   next   to  copjx?r  and   gold,  silver 
being   the    highest.     It  has    more  than    three   times  the 
conductivity  of  iron,  hence  is  very  suitable  for  telegraph 
and  telephone  wires. 

5.  Malleability.     It   is  extremely  ductile,  and  can    be 
hammered,  rolled,  stani|)cd,  or  pressed  with  ease. 

6.  The  numerous  valuable  alloys  into  which  it  enters. 
The  projx3rty  of  lightness  has  had  much  to  do  with  the 

introduction  of  aluminum  for  domestic  utensils,  and  has 
also  caused  it  to  be  in  demand  in  the  construction  of  cer- 
tain parts  of  machines  where  momentum  was  to  be  over- 
come. Many  have  had  the  impression  that  it  wa>*  the  Ixst 
material  for  bicycle  construction.  This  is  not  so,  since, 
weight  for  weight,  steel  is  the  stronger.  It  has  been 
alloyed  with  steel,  however,  in  making  bicycle  frames, 
with  good  results.  For  boat-building  it  is  much  favored, 
being  only  three  times  heavier  than  most  woods,  and  resist- 
ing the  corroding  action  of  the  water.  Yarrow  &  Co.,  the 
famous  English  firm  of  boat-builders,  constructed  a  small 
torjxKlo-lxxit  with  a  hull  of  aluminum,  in  1894,  with 
which  they  were  well  pleased.  A  steel  framework  was 
used.  Aluminum  racing  shells  have  been  built  of  about 
fifty  pounds'  weight,  which  were  considered  better  than 
cedar.  The  record  on  the  Schuylkill  River  course  has  been 


330  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

lowered  nine  seconds  by  their  use.  For  constructions  under 
water  this  metal  has  been  successfully  used,  and  is  un- 
doubtedly the  best  for  such  purposes.  Care  must  be  taken 
to  use  pure  aluminum,  however,  as  the  alloys  are  some- 
times lacking  in  this  quality.  The  corrosion  in  sea-water 
is  a  little  more  than  one-thousandth  of  an  inch  per  year, 
an  amount  not  worth  figuring  on.  This  non-corrosive 
quality  renders  it  further  useful  in  connection  with  steam. 
Being  more  porous  than  iron  or  steel,  it  has  to  be  made 
thicker  when  cast  for  use  in  steam  apparatus. 

Aluminum  is  dissolvable  by  several  acids,  as  hydro- 
chloric acid,  or  concentrated  sulphuric  acid  when  the 
aluminum  is  heated.  A  strong  solution  of  caustic  alkali 
also  dissolves  it,  and  ammonia  has  a  partially  dissolvent 
action  upon  it. 

Aluminum  has  been  rolled  as  thin  as  the  one  two-thou- 
sandth of  an  inch,  and  in  the  form  of  leaf-metal  is  especially 
suitable  for  decorative  purposes,  its  rich,  silver- white  color 
being  easily  maintained.  Those  who  visited  the  Transpor- 
tation building  at  the  Columbian  Exposition  will  remem- 
ber the  artistic  leaf  decorations  of  this  metal  that  attracted 
so  much  attention. 

The  casting  of  aluminum  is  accomplished  with  compara- 
tive readiness.  It  melts  at  about  1 1 60°  F.,  and  should  not 
be  heated  much  hotter,  or  it  will  occlude  (that  is,  absorb)  the 
air  to  some  extent.  The  shrinkage  is  double  that  of  iron, 
being  a  minute  fraction  over  a  quarter  of  an  inch  to  the  foot. 

Aluminum  is  used  as  an  alloy  for  steel  castings,  largely 
because  in  this  case  it  tends  to  prevent  the  retention  of  the 
gases  otherwise  occluded  in  the  steel,  and  thus  tends  to 
insure  sound  castings,  which,  until  recent  years,  were  not 
universally  obtained.  The  alloying  of  aluminum  with 
cast  iron  tends  to  convert  the  combined  carbon  in  the  iron 


ALUMIXUM,  THE  METAL   OF  THE  FUTURE.        331 

into  the  graphitic*  state,  softening  the  iron,  reducing  the 
shrinkage,  and  lessening  the  tendency  to  chill.  A  slight 
quantitv  of  it  much  improves  an  inferior  grade  of  pig  iron. 

Aluminum-bronze  alloys  are  among  the  most  valuable 
discovered  up  to  date.  The  proportion  of  aluminum  used 
varies  from  five  to  eleven  and  one-half  JHT  cent.  It  is 
stated  that  the  ten  ]>ercent.  bronze  has  l>een  made  in  forged 
bars  with  a  tensile  strength  of  one  hundred  thousand 
pounds  to  the  square  inch,  the  elastic  limit  Ix'ing  sixty 
thousand  jxninds,  and  the  elongation  ten  JXT  cent,  in  eight 
inches.  This  alloy  is  yellow  in  color,  and  melts  at  alxmt 
1700°  F.  It  is  malleable  at  a  red  heat,  a  jx-culiarity 
which  is  quite  convenient,  as  none  of  the  other  bronzes  are 
malleable  at  a  high  heat.  As  an  acid-resisting  combina- 
tion aluminum-bronze  stands  high,  and  it  is  Ix'ing  used  for 
coal-screens  and  similar  articles  subject  to  acid  mine  waters, 
and  in  parts  of  machines  used  in  the  manufacture  of  acids. 

The  addition  of  about  one-half  of  one  per  cent,  of  alu- 
minum to  Babbitt  metal  has  proved  sufficiently  valuable 
to  become  the  subject  of  a  jmtent  by  A.  W.  Cad  man,  of 
Pittsburg.  It  assists  the  malleability  of  Babbitt  metal  so 
that  it  can  be  more  readily  rolled  into  bar-form. 

Lead  and  mercury  are  the  only  metals  with  which 
aluminum  will  not  alloy,  though  combination  with  anti- 
mony is  accomplished  only  with  difficulty.  A  little  silver 
added  to  aluminum  improves  its  color  and  adds  strength. 
This  combination  is  well  suited  to  various  surgical  and 
scientific  instruments. 

An  alloy  of  about  thirteen  parts  tin  with  aluminum 
gives  a  combination  that  has  the  merit  of  casting  with 
very  slight  shrinkage,  and  might  be  useftd  as  a  substitute 
for  electrotype  metal.  Both  zinc  and  brass  are  improved 
by  slightly  alloying  with  aluminum,  the  galvanizing 

27* 


332  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

properties  of  the  latter  being  increased.  Cast  aluminum 
is  much  improved  by  the  addition  of  about  fifteen  per 
cent,  of  zinc  and  a  minute  quantity  of  tin. 

It  is  in  being  soldered  that  aluminum  falls  short  of 
one's  expectations.  About  twenty  different  combinations 
of  metals  are  prescribed  as  useful  in  soldering  aluminum 
or  its  alloys,  which  may  be  taken  as  a  sign  that  none  of 
them  are  good  for  much,  else  the  best  would  have  been 
sifted  out  for  use.  The  trouble  is  that  aluminum,  being 
an  excellent  conductor  of  heat,  draws  the  heat  out  of  the 
soldering  compounds  before  they  can  flow  sufficiently. 

For  domestic  utensils  aluminum  is  destined  to  be  in 
increasing  demand.  They  are  so  pretty,  so  light,  and  so 
easy  to  keep  clean,  and  they  cost  just  enough  more  than 
other  kinds  to  make  them  fashionable.  The  Illinois  Pure 
Aluminum  Company  manufactures  a  complete  kitchen 
outfit,  from  coffee-pot  to  frying-pan.  It  is  certain  that 
water  can  be  boiled  quicker  in  an  aluminum  pot  or  pan 
than  in  a  vessel  of  any  other  metal — for  two  reasons,  the 
aluminum  is  made  very  thin  and  it  is  an  excellent  con- 
ductor of  heat.  For  covered  dishes  designed  to  retain  the 
heat  aluminum  is  the  best  metal  we  have. 

The  cook-rooms  of  the  government  cruisers  "  San  Fran- 
cisco" and  "  Montgomery"  are  each  supplied  with  sixty- 
gallon  steam-jacketed  kettles.  Hotels  and  eating-houses 
will  not  be  long  in  adopting  these  utensils  of  aluminum,  as 
their  extreme  durability  renders  them  cheap  in  the  long 
run.  It  is  a  remarkable  feature  of  some  of  these  utensils 
that  they  are  cast,  and  not  stamped.  A  tea-kettle  can  be 
cast  only  the  sixteenth  of  an  inch  in  thickness  that  will 
stand  an  amount  of  banging  and  denting  which  would 
lead  any  one  not  familiar  with  the  facts  to  suppose  that  it 
was  made  of  rolled  or  stamped  metal. 


WIRE  XETTIXO   IX  GLASS.  333 

Among  the  odd  uses  to  which  aluminum  is  put  may  be 
named  :  slate-pencils,  which  are  simply  bits  of  aluminum 
wire,  that  mark  a  slate  as  well  as  if  made  of  the  slate 
itself,  and  which  do  not  break  or  wear  out  ;  horseshoes, 
which  are  said  to  last  better  than  iron,  and  of  course  the 
lightness  is  a  ]>oint  in  their  favor;  sounding-boards  for 
musical  instruments,  giving  forth  a  sound  of  a  character 
different  from  that  called  metallic,  and  more  musical  than 
the  wooden  sounding-lx>ards  in  common  use ;  printers' 
type,  giving  a  metal  that  is  indestructible  as  compared 
with  the  soft  alloys  in  use,  and  which  is  equally  free  from 
rust,  and  that  easts  readily. 

From  the  above  it  will  be  seen  that  aluminum  has  so 
many  varied  valuable  qualities  that  its  use  is  sure  to  extend. 
Unfortunately,  there  is  no  present  prospect  of  a  reduction 
in  the  cost  of  obtaining  it.  The  metal  exists  in  great 
plenty.  When  some  cheaper  means  of  releasing  it  from 
the  earth  are  found  it  will  be  in  still  greater  demand. 


WIRE    NETTING    IN    GLASS. 

A  Recent  Product  of  American  Inventive  Genius  that  is  coming 
rapidly  into  Use — Description  of  Various  Processes. 

IIRE-GLASS  is  the  shortened  name 
given  to  the  combination  of  wire 
netting  and  glass  that  has  come  into 
use  within  a  few  years.  When  the 
necessities  of  the  travelling  public 
obliged  railway  corporations  to  build 
great  stations,  with  wide-arched  roofs 
spanning  perhaps  a  dozen  tracks,  it  was  found  that  the 
only  practical  way  of  lighting  such  buildings  was  to  make 


334  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

the  roof  largely  of  glass.  As  glass  panes  in  a  roof  have  a 
bad  habit  of  occasionally  breaking  and  dropping  dangerous 
fragments,  it  became  necessary  to  protect  the  people  below 
from  accident,  and  the  companies  from  suits  for  damages, 
by  placing  nettings  of  wire  below  the  glass,  thus  supporting 
broken  fragments  until  such  time  as  it  might  be  convenient 
to  make  repairs.  This  answered  tolerably  well  for  a  time, 
but  the  netting  was  found  to  be  very  perishable  when  ex- 
posed to  the  corroding  influence  of  the  gases  and  smoke  that 
invariably  rise  in  a  railway  station,  chemical  works,  etc., 
while  in  other  large  buildings  where  it  was  so  used  its  life 
was  short,  and  it  became  almost  as  much  of  a  nuisance  to 
keep  it  in  repair  as  to  take  care  of  the  broken  glass. 

In  September,  1892,  Frank  Shuman  patented  a  process 
of  making  wire  glass  which  has  changed  all  this,  and  the 
transparent  roofs  of  a  large  building  can  now  be  made  as 
permanent  as  the  rest  of  the  structure.  Mr.  Shuman  was 
not  the  first  to  think  of  embedding  the  wire  in  the  glass, 
but  he  was  the  first  to  concoct  a  method  of  embedding  it 
that  was  commercially  practical.  When  so  embedded  the 
glass  protects  the  wire  from  corrosion  and  the  wire  adds 
strength  to  the  glass,  and  it  is  very  seldom  that  a  broken 
fragment  will  not  be  sustained  in  its  place,  so  that  the 
whole  combination  is  extremely  satisfactory ;  and,  although 
Mr.  Shuman's  invention  was  not  fairly  on  the  market  until 
late  in  1893,  there  are  now  (1895)  two  large  concerns  in  the 
United  States  engaged  in  its  manufacture — the  American 
Wire  Glass  Manufacturing  Company,  at  Tacony,  Phila- 
delphia, and  the  Mississippi  Glass  Company,  at  St.  Louis, 
Missouri.  The  works  of  the  first-mentioned  company 
cover  an  acre  and  a  half  of  ground,  and  they  keep  an 
eight-pot  Siemens's  regenerative  furnace  of  the  latest  design 
busy  melting  ten  tons  of  glass  per  diem. 


WIRE   XKTTIXV   I\   GLASS.  335 

The  first  invention  of  which  there  is  record  relating  to 
the  combination  of  wire  and  gla^  was  made  by  one  New- 
ton, who  secured  a  British  patent  in  1<S.")O.  He  had  a 
notion  that  wiring  was  desirable  for  the  purjMise  of  making 
glass  fire-proof  and  burglar-proof.  He  proposed  to  ]>oiir  a 
thickness  of  glass  in  a  mould,  lay  on  a  sheet  of  wire  netting 
and  then  pour  on  more  glass,  after  which  the  whole  was  to 
lx»  subjected  to  pressure.  Whether  lie  ever  really  tried  the 
process  is  not  known,  but  if  he  did  subsequent  experience 
goes  to  show  that  he  met  with  disappointment,  as  wire  can- 
not be  satisfactorily  embedded  in  this  manner,  Ixinuse  it 
heats  and  warps.  In  1871,  Thaddeus  Hyatt,  of  England, 
ap|>eared  on  the  scene  with  another  and  letter  process,  and 
experimented  largely.  His  plan  was  to  stretch  the  \viir 
netting  in  a  mould,  then  to  pour  the  molten  glass  on  top  of 
the  wire,  and  force  it  through  by  hydraulic  pressure.  He 
found  it  impossible  to  keep  the  wire  netting  in  the  centre 
of  his  glass  sheet.  It  would  sag  and  warp.  The  glass 
could  only  l>e  made  in  very  small  sizes  at  a  cost  beyond 
what  it  might  be  expected  to  bring  when  sold.  He  was 
therefore  obliged  to  abandon  the  enterprise. 

Another  Englishman,  Armstrong  by  name,  in  1887,  came 
nearer  the  goal,  and,  had  he  persevered  in  his  experiments, 
might  have  been  successful.  His  method  was  to  depress 
the  wire  netting  into  the  surface  of  molten  glass,  by  means 
of  a  heavy  roller,  and  cover  the  wire  in  the  glass  by  means 
of  a  following  roller.  He  had  the  germ  of  the  correct 
idea,  but  because  of  inadequate  machinery,  and  other  rea- 
sons, he  stopped  short,  and  failed. 

In  1888  a  German,  named  Tenner,  patented  a  process 
that  operated  satisfactorily  for  small  sizes,  but,  as  the 
demand  for  wire-glass  is  for  large  sizes,  the  invention  was 
not  a  complete  success.  His  method  was  to  roll  a  sheet  of 


336  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

molten  glass  quite  thin,  to  lay  on  this  a  wire  netting  heated 
red  hot,  and  to  pour  on  another  thickness  of  glass  and  roll 
it,  after  which  the  whole  was  subjected  to  hydraulic  pres- 
sure. It  was  this  last  requirement  that  limited  the  size,  as 
it  was  found  impracticable  to  press  over  two  feet  square. 

Another  German  patent  (Sievert,  1882)  produces  the 
same  result,  though  it  is  a  better  process  than  Tenner's, 
inasmuch  as  only  one  rolling  of  the  glass  is  required,  the 
hot  wire  netting  being  supported  by  the  corrugations  of 
the  bottom  of  the  mould. 

The  Shuman  patents,  for  there  are  two  of  them,  simul- 
taneously issued  under  date  of  September  20,  1892,  are  the 
only  United  States  patents  granted  for  wire-glass  up  to 
that  time,  and  constitute  one  of  those  rare  instances  of  a 
process  springing  full-fledged  and  practical  in  a  very  short 
space  of  time  to  a  most  profitable  and  useful  business.  For 
the  invention  of  a  practical  method  of  making  wired  glass, 
Mr.  Shuman  received  the  John  Scott  legacy  and  premium 
medal  from  the  Franklin  Institute  in  Philadelphia,  in 
1893. 

In  the  Shuman  process  four  rollers  are  used  upon  the 
molten  glass,  so  arranged  as  to  pass  over  in  succession, 
without  waste  of  time,  the  hot  wire  being  fed  in  automati- 
cally between  the  first  and  second  rollers.  The  wire  net- 
ting is  heated  very  hot,  being  at  the  time  of  incorporation 
within  a  few  degrees  of  the  temperature  of  the  melted 
glass.  A  very  long,  cast-iron  table  is  set  in  the  floor  and 
heated  by  gas  flames,  so  that  it  will  not  chill  the  glass. 
When  all  is  ready,  a  large  ladle  of  molten  glass  is  with- 
drawn from  the  blazing  furnace,  and  carried  between  two 
workmen  to  the  table,  where  it  is  tipped  up  and  poured,  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  distribute  its  contents  well  over  the 
table.  Then  the  vehicle  on  the  table,  with  its  four  rollers. 


WIRK   \ETTL\f;    L\   GLASS. 


337 


which  have  also  l)een  kept  lint,  is  rolled  i'min  the  end  of 
the  table,  along  a  little  track. 

Roller  No.  1  smooths  and  spreads  the  glass  so  that  it  pre- 
sents a  level  surface.  With  and  In1  fore  roller  No.  2  comes 
the  red-hot  netting,  which  slides  down  an  inclined  iron 
table  and  is  prcssul  deep  into  the  glass  by  the  corrugations 
with  which  this  roller  is  furnished.  Roller  No.  3  serves 

FIG.  79. 


to  smooth  over  the  glass  and  cover  the  wire,  while  roller 
No.  4  prevents  the  glass,  which  tends  to  become  plastic 
at  this  stage,  from  curling  up  behind  roller  No.  3,  and  also 
assists  a  further  smoothing  of  the  glass. 

The  next  process  is  the  annealing,  which  serves  to 
toughen  the  product.  After  this  the  glass  requires  only 
trimming  to  standard  size  to  be  ready  for  the  market.  As 
it  is  both  inconvenient  and  difficult  to  cut  both  glass  and 
wire  in  trimming,  the  wire  introduced  is  of  the  size  of  the 
completed  product,  and  the  trimmer  simply  cuts  the  glass 
down  close  to  the  edge  of  the  wire. 


338  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

Sometimes  it  is  desired  to  corrugate  the  wire  within  the 
glass,  and  this  is  readily  done  by  making  the  ribbed  sur- 
face of  roller  No.  2  with  undulations  that  depress  the 
hot  wire  more  at  some  points  than  at  others.  The  rolls 
are  very  heavy,  being  made  to  deliver  a  pressure  of  fifty 
pounds  to  the  square  inch.  The  wire  netting  used  varies 
in  mesh  from  a  quarter-inch  to  three  inches.  The  medium 
sizes  are  most  in  demand.  The  regular  sizes  of  glass  made 
by  this  process  run  up  to  two  by  seven  and  three  by 
eight  feet  square.  The  thickness  of  the  glass  varies  from 
three-sixteenths  to  three-eighths  of  an  inch  for  common 
purposes.  For  special  uses  it  is  sometimes  made  an  inch 
thick.  The  lesser  thickness  can  be  rolled  in  eighteen 
seconds,  the  three-eighths  glass  requiring  twice  that  time. 
The  difference  in  thickness  is  obtained  by  adjusting  the 
height  of  the  track  that  bears  the  rollers. 

When  it  becomes  necessary  to  cut  the  glass  where  it  is 
wired,  the  method  is  to  use  a  diamond,  and  break  the  glass, 
as  would  be  done  with  any  other  glass,  and  then  to  work 
the  glass  back  and  forth  until  there  is  room  to  introduce  a 
thin-bladed,  fine  steel-tempered  saw,  with  which  the  wires 
can  be  cut.  This  is  rather  tedious,  but  it  is  an  operation 
that  does  not  have  to  be  performed  except  in  special  cases. 

The  wire  netting  used  is  preferably  a  good  grade  of  an- 
nealed steel.  Before  heating  it  is  washed  in  benzine,  then 
wiped  and  polished  by  being  passed  between  rolls  covered 
with  bristles  and  buffing-rolls  covered  with  flannel.  Being 
thus  rendered  perfectly  clean,  it  is  fit  to  be  impressed  in 
the  glass. 

One  of  the  advantages  of  this  wire-glass  is  that  it  may 
be  made  thinner  than  other  glass  intended  for  the  same  use, 
as  in  roofs,  since  the  wire  gives  greater  strength.  This  not 
only  lessens  the  cost,  but  removes  a  considerable  portion  of 


MACHINE-MADE    WATCHES.  339 

weight,  an  item  of  importance  in  large  roofs.  It  is  not 
readily  damaged  by  vibration,  and  it  is  hail-proof.  Its 
strength  is  <«s|>ecially  valuable  when  a  bed  of  snow  has  to 
be  supported,  and  it  eatehes  and  retains  falling  articles, 
that  would  shiver  any  other  sort  of  glass.  Where  glass  is 
used  protected  by  a  wire  screen  it  is  practically  impossible 
to  keep  the  under  surface  of  the  glass  clean,  and  it  shortly 
becomes  clouded  and  obscure,  and  never  admits  the  amount 
of  light  that  is  to  Ix?  had  from  the  thinner  and  more 
easily  cleaned  wire-glass.  As  it  becomes  better  known  it 
will  no  doubt  come  into  a  variety  of  new  uses,  such  a*  for 
port-holes  and  deck-lights  in  vessels,  and  for  sky-lights  in 
dwellings  and  business  buildings. 


MACHINE-MADE    WATCHES. 

The    Simple    Mechanical    Principles  which    are   required   in   the 
Manufacture  of   Modern  Time-Pieces. 

THE  cheapness  and  high  grade  of  American  watches 
long  since  ceased  to  be  a  marvel  with  the  people.  They 
simply  buy  them  and  use  them,  glad  that  they  are  lx>th 
good  and  cheap,  and  only  occasionally  does  some  inquisi- 
tive individual,  usually  a  boy,  pull  his  watch  to  pieces 
to  see  how  it  is  made.  The  real  wonder  about  these 
tiny  machines  is  that  people  know  so  little  about  them. 
Every  farmer  understands  his  mowing-machine;  every 
printer  knows  the  parts  of  the  presses  he  uses;  every 
woman  learns  something  of  the  mechanism  of  her  sewing- 
machine  ;  yet,  though  nearly  every  person  carries  a  watch, 
there  are  comparatively  few  who  understand  how  they 


340  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

work,  and  why  the  winding  of  a  tiny  spring  for  fifteen 
seconds  should  keep  the  hands  moving  for  nine  thousand 
times  fifteen  seconds. 

Every  one  who  aspires  to  know  something  of  mechanism 
should  acquire  a  knowledge  of  the  principles  on  which 
time-pieces  operate,  and  to  this  end  a  brief  description  is 
given  here.  The  first  thing  to  be  borne  in  mind  is  that 
what  is  required  in  a  watch  is  simply  some  mechanism  that 
will  keep  going,  and  turn  pointers  around  on  a  dial  at  an 
even  speed.  The  simplest  mechanism  that  will  do  this  is 
the  best.  Some  form  of  power  must  be  used,  for  no  ma- 
chine will  do  work  without  power.  A  spiral  spring  has 
been  found  the  most  convenient  form  of  motor,  and  it  is 
given  power  by  the  daily  act  of  winding  it  up.  In  order  to 
make  this  unwinding  of  the  spring  take  up  as  long  a  period 
of  time  as  possible,  what  is  known  as  the  train  of  wheels  is 
used.  This  is  shown  in  Fig.  80,  the  wheels  being  arranged 

FIG.  80. 


THEORETICAL  WATCH-TRAIN. 


in  a  line,  for  the  sake  of  clearness,  instead  of  crowded  to- 
gether, as  in  a  watch,  to  save  space.  In  the  centre  of  the 
large  wheel  (Fig.  80)  we  see  a  little  square  post  which  the 
watch-key  grasps  when  we  wind  it.  Turning  this  post  or 
arbor  tends  to  wrap  the  spring  around  it,  and  when  the 
spring  is  wound,  it  is  held  in  its  case — or  barrel,  as  it  is 
called — by  the  pawl  which  we  see  stopping  one  of  the  sharp 
ratchet-teeth  in  its  periphery.  In  its  endeavor  to  unwind, 


MACHINE-MADE    WATCHES.  341 

the  spring  exerts  a  pressure  of  several  ounces  against  this 
pawl,  and,  as  the  pawl  is  fast  to  the  Ixxly  of  the  wheel,  the 
tendency  is  to  make  the  wheel  turn  around,  which  is  what 
it  does.  The  wheel  would  turn  around  and  allow  the  spring 
to  unwind  even  more  rapidly  than  it  was  wound  up  if  it 
were  not  cheeked  by  delaying  mechanism,  which  we  shall 
describe  further  on.  At  present  we  must  trace  the  motion 
through  this  train  of  wheels.  At  the  centre  of  the  second, 
or  next  to  largest  wheel  (Fig.  80),  we  see  a  circular  spot 
that  represents  the  end  of  the  pinion.  This  pinion  is  a 
little  toothed  axle  fast  to  the  large  toothed  wheel,  of  which 
it  forms  the  centre.  The  teeth  of  big  wheel  No.  1  engage 
the  teeth  of  the  pinion  of  wheel  No.  2,  and  thus  drive 
No.  2  as  many  times  faster  than  No.  1  as  the  big  wheel  is 
times  larger  than  the  pinion.  If  there  are  seventy -eight 
teeth  on  the  big  wheel,  and  ten  teeth  on  the  pinion,  the 
second  wheel  will  have  about  one  eighth  the  sjx?ed  of 
the  first.  In  like  manner  the  second  wheel  acts  on  the 
third,  and  the  third  on  the  fourth,  so  that  the  third  wheel 
revolves  sixty  times  as  fast  as  the  first,  and  so  on. 
Having  now  reduced  the  speed  of  the  wheels  sufficiently, 
we  must  next  use  a  regulating  machanism  to  check  the 
motion  of  the  whole  train,  which  would  still  be  entirely 
too  fast  for  our  use  if  left  to  run,  checked  only  by  the 
friction  of  its  bearings.  The  mechanism  we  make  use  of 
is  the  escapement,  which  is  partly  shown  in  Fig.  80,  as 
driven  by  the  fourth  wheel,  but  better  in  Fig.  81.  This 
escapement-wheel  we  see  has  odd-shaped  teeth,  so  made 
that  the  wheel  can  only  turn  around  as  the  fork  above  it  is 
worked  or  oscillated,  so  that  the  black  teeth  or  pallets  rise 
alternately,  allowing  one  tooth  of  the  escapement-wheel  to 
escape  at  every  motion.  Thus  this  fork  answers  the  same 
purpose  as  the  pendulum  of  the  clock,  and  the  rate  at 


342 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


FIG.  81. 


which  the  pendulum  or  fork  allows  the  escapement- wheel 
to  turn  determines  the  rate  of  the  watch.  As  it  is  impossi- 
ble to  use  a  pendulum  in  a  watch  that  is  required  to  go  in 
any  position,  it  becomes  necessary  to  use  other  means  to 
oscillate  the  fork.  We  can  see  how  this 
is  accomplished  by  consulting  Fig.  82, 
which  gives  a  view  of  the  principal  parts 
of  a  Waltham  watch.  Here  we  find  the 
train  of  wheels  differently  grouped,  but 
still  arranged  the  same  as  to  working. 
On  the  bottom  of  the  cut,  on  the  right,  is 
the  escapement-wheel,  commonly  short- 
ened in  name  to  escape-wheel  or  scape- 
wheel,  and  its  fork  is  nearly  hidden 
under  the  balance-wheel.  It  is  this  bal- 
ance-wheel and  the  hair-spring,  which 
we  see  curled  up  in  its  centre,  that  deter- 
mines the  oscillation  of  the  fork.  When 
the  pressure  of  the  main-spring  makes 
itself  felt  through  all  the  train  of  wheels, 
and  turns  the  escape-wheel  as  far  as  it 
will  go,  it  moves  the  fork  to  one  side,  thus 
partially  winding  up  the  hair-spring.  Then  a  tooth  of  the 
escape-wheel  escapes  or  slips  by,  and  the  hair-spring  being 
released  whirls  the  balance-wheel  and  turns  the  fork  the 
other  way,  admitting  another  tooth  of  the  escape-wheel, 
when  the  main-spring  again  comes  into  play,  and  the 
operation  is  repeated  until  the  watch  runs  down.  The 
balance-wheel  is  kept  turning  first  one  way,  then  the  other, 
as  it  alternately  takes  its  impulse  from  the  main-spring  or 
the  hair-spring.  The  main-spring  really  furnishes  all  the 
power,  setting  the  hair-spring  every  time,  so  that  it  may 
give  a  recoil  and  bring  the  fork  back  to  place  when  the 


ESCAPE-WHEEL    AND 
FORK. 


MACHINE-MADE    WATCHES. 


343 


escape-wheel  escai>es.  On  the  periphery  of  tin*  balance- 
wheel  will  be  observed  a  Dumber  of  small  screws.  These 
are  useful  in  regulating  the  watch  to  tcinjierature.  At 


DIAGRAM  OK  THE  PRINCIPAL  PARTS  OK  A  WALTHAM   WATCH. 

Fig.  83  will  be  seen  a  balance-wheel  arranged  with  what  is 
called  the  compensation  balance,  which  was  invented  more 
than  a  hundred  years  ago.  It  will  be  observed  that  the 
rim  is  cut  in  two  parts,  which  are  maintained  in  position 
by  a  cross-piece.  The  black  part  of  the  rim  is  made  of 
steel,  the  lighter  part  of  brass,  and  being  firmly  fastened 
together  a  result  is  obtained  that  causes  the  balance  to 
maintain  the  same  speed  whether  the  temperature  is  hot  or 
cold.  As  the  usual  vibration  of  a  balance-wheel  is  at  the 
rate  of  eighteen  thousand  an  hour,  it  can  be  seen  that  a 
slight  expansion  of  the  rim  by  heat  would  slow  down  the 
watch  materially,  while  exposure  to  cold  would  make  it 

28* 


344  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

run  fast.  In  the  compensation  balance,  however,  the  brass 
expands  faster  than  the  steel,  and  tends  to  make  the  rim 
curl  in  with  an  increase  of  temperature,  so  that  when  it  is 
hot  the  watch  is  inclined  to  run  fast  instead  of  slow,  which 
would  otherwise  be  the  case.  This  tendency  of  the  com- 
pensation balance  to  run  fast  when  heated  must  be  made  to 
exactly  balance  the  tendency  which  exists  in  the  hair-spring 
to  slow  down  because  of  lost  elasticity  under  heat.  When 
this  is  properly  done  we  have  a  watch  that  will  run  accu- 


3 

THE  COMPENSATION  BALANCE. 


rately  at  all  common  temperatures.  The  small  screws  in 
the  balance-wheel  may  be  set  at  any  of  the  points  numbered 
from  1  to  12,  and  by  shifting  them  an  adjustment  of  weight 
is  obtained  that  causes  the  balance  to  throw  in  and  out  the 
exact  weight  required  to  alter  the  centrifugal  force  to  meet 
the  requirements  previously  stated.  If  it  is  found  that  an 
increase  of  twenty -five  degrees  in  temperature  causes  the 
watch  to  lose  seven  seconds  an  hour,  screw  No.  3  might  be 
moved  to  position  No.  11,  adding  to  the  weight  of  the  part 
of  the  rim  that  curled  in  with  the  heat,  and  causing  the 


MACHINE-MADE    WATCHES.  345 

balance  to  travel  faster,  since  the  shifted  weight  would 
under  increase  of  tenijx'rature  l>e  nearer  the  centre,  and 
exert  less  centrifugal  force. 

Another  device  is  provided  to  adjust  the  sj>eed  of  the 
watch  when  it  is  found  to  vary  constantly  in  one  direction. 
It  is  the  lever  or  pointer  on  a  scale  which  we  move  towards 
S  to  make  the  watch  go  slower,  or  towards  F  to  increase 
its  sj>eed.  This  oj>erates  by  increasing  or  lessening  the 
tension  on  the  hair-spring,  to  which  it  is  attached. 

Referring  again  to  Fig.  8*2  we  see  at  the  top  the  winding 
mechanism  that  has  replaced  the  old-fashioned  key.  Turn- 
ing the  winding  post  at  the  top  serves  to  turn  the  barrel 
that  carries  the  main-spring,  through  the  medium  of  a 
toothed  wheel  called  the  crown-wheel,  which  is  not  here 
shown. 

The  fourth  wheel  of  the  train,  seen  at  the  bottom  of  Fig. 
82,  carries  the  seconds-hand  (as  it  is  pro|>erly  called  to 
avoid  confusion  with  the  more  familiar  adjective  second- 
hand, associated  with  worn-out  furniture  or  machinery). 
The  second  wheel  of  the  train,  called  the  centre-wheel, 
because  of  its  location,  revolves  once  an  hour,  carrying  the 
minute-hand.  In  order  to  drive  the  hour-hand,  two  other 
wheels  are  required.  These  are  not  shown,  as  they  would 
complicate  the  drawing,  but  it  is  sufficient  to  state  that  they 
act  like  the  other  wheels  of  the  train,  and  that  the  one  that 
bears  the  hour-hand  is  set  on  a  collar,  so  that  it  may  re- 
volve about  the  same  centre  as  the  minute-hand  underneath 
it,  without  either  interfering  with  the  other's  motion. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  in  each  case  two  wheels  are  used 
to  cause  the  difference  of  movement  between  one  hand  of 
the  watch  and  another.  One  wheel  would  do,  if  propor- 
tioned as  one  to  sixty,  but  if  thus  directly  connected,  the 
hands  would  have  a  reverse  motion  on  the  dial,  two  turn- 


346  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

ing  to  the  right,  and  one  to  the  left,  or  vice  versa.  This 
has  to  be  prevented  by  the  use  of  two  wheels,  as  the  public 
would  find  it  hard  to  grow  accustomed  to  a  watch  that 
measured  its  minutes  or  hours  backward. 

There  are  other  pieces  and  parts  in  a  watch,  but  they  are 
non-essential  to  an  understanding  of  the  principles  on  which 
it  operates  to  maintain  a  regular  speed.  There  are  the  jew- 
els, or  bits  of  ruby,  that  are  turned  in  a  minute  lathe,  and 
which  serve  as  hardened  bearings  for  the  parts  that  are 
subjected  to  most  friction  and  wear.  A  watch  made  with- 
out jewels  can  be  sold  for  a  dollar,  and  will  keep  tolerable 
time  for  a  year  or  two.  Stem- winding  watches  have  a  set- 
ting mechanism,  operating  from  the  stem.  A  small  sliding 
or  shifting  lever  is  pulled  from  the  side  of  the  case,  or  the 
stem  itself  is  shifted  by  pushing  it  in,  and  this  serves  to 
put  out  of  gear  the  mechanism  for  winding,  and  bring 
about  a  connection  with  the  centre  wheel,  bearing  the  min- 
ute-hand, which  being  set  only  friction-tight,  may  be 
adjusted  either  way  without  affecting  the  main-spring. 

There  is  very  little  difference  in  the  mechanism  of  the 
leading  makes  of  watches,  except  in  the  escapement.  This 
has  been  made  in  a  great  variety  of  forms,  though  the  one 
here  described  is  probably  the  most  common.  It  is  called 
the  anchor-escapement,  from  the  form  of  the  fork.  The 
name  lever-escapement  is  also  applied  to  this  form.  An- 
other form  is  called  the  cylinder-escapement,  and  in  this  a 
cylinder  takes  the  place  of  the  fork,  having  points  which 
engage  the  escape-wheel.  The  crown-  or  verge- escapement, 
also  named  the  vertical  escapement,  has  the  escape-wheel 
mounted  at  a  right  angle  to  the  train  of  wheels. 

Large  mechanical  ability  and  a  natural  capacity  for  that 
sort  of  thing  is  requisite  to  the  designing  of  a  watch,  and 
still  more  so  to  the  making  of  the  machines  used  in  watch- 


MACHINE-MADE    WATCHES.  347 

making.  We  no  longer  have  the  old-fashioned  watch- 
makers, men  who  coultl  make  about  one  watch  a  year 
between  the  times  they  attended  to  customers  in  a  little 
jewelry  store.  Superintendents  of  watch-factories  and  a 
few  others  are  the  only  men  who  understand  watch-making 
in  all  its  details.  The  workmen  air  taught  but  one  branch 
of  the  work,  and  kept  at  that,  in  order  to  arrive  at  the 
highest  decree  of  skill  and  s|>eed  in  that  one  thing.  As 
a  consequence  only  a  few  get  to  know  the  whole  trade. 
Some  of  these  few  exhibit  a  degree  of  s|>eeial  training  that 
is  remarkable.  The  story  is  told  of  a  superintendent  in 
one  of  the  leading  watch-making  establishments  of  the 
country  who,  on  being  shown  a  steel  ball  designed  for  use 
in  a  bicycle  taaring,  and  requests!  to  note  its  accuracy, 
jocularly  remarked,  "  Why  don't  you  make  them  round?" 
"I  guess  it  couldn't  be  made  much  rounder,"  said  the 
maker  of  the  ball.  After  some  banter,  the  man  of  watches 
took  out  his  lead  ]x>ncil  and  mark(nl  three  sjxrts,  and  offered 
to  wager  that  they  were  below  the  radius  of  the  rest  of  the 
ball's  surface.  Recourse  being  had  to  a  very  accurate 
micrometer,  it  was  found  that  the  spots  indicated  by  the 
watch-factory  superintendent  were  each  alxnit  j^  of  an 
inch  low,  showing  the  marvellous  sense  of  touch  and  ac- 
curacy that  he  had  acquired  in  dealing  with  small  things. 
It  is  the  development  of  genius  and  accuracy  of  this  sort 
that  has  made  it  possible  to  produce  a  watch  of  high  grade 
that  will  retail  for  ten  dollars,  and  very  fair  watches  for 
four  or  five  dollars  each. 


348  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


PROGRESS  IN  PRINTING. 

The  Development  of  Web  Perfecting   Machines  for  Daily  News- 
papers—Type-Setting and  Line-Casting  Machines. 

IN  no  other  trade  has  there  been  more  manifest  im- 
provement in  methods  and  results  for  the  past  twenty  years 
than  in  the  art  of  printing.  The  invention  of  movable 
types  was  made  about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century, 
and  is  generally  spoken  of  as  the  invention  of  printing, 
since  it  made  cheap  printing  possible.  From  that  time  up 
to  1800  there  was  little  progress  in  the  methods  of  work 
employed,  though  the  printing  of  books  became  common, 
and  there  was  established  a  considerable  number  of  news- 
papers. About  the  beginning  of  this  century,  Napier  in- 
vented the  cylinder  press,  and  steam  was  shortly  applied 
to  these  machines.  Since  1830  improvements  have  been 
rapid,  and  as  the  demand  for  cheaper  literature  grew  the 
machinery  has  been  perfected  to  meet  the  want,  until  to- 
day every  large  city  in  America  has  a  press  that  will  print 
from  five  to  even  fifty  miles  of  paper  in  an  hour,  and  in- 
genious machines  that  almost  seem  to  think  as  they  set  up 
a  hundred  thousand  types  in  a  working  day  of  ten  hours. 

The  quality  of  the  printing  executed  has  improved  as 
fast  as  the  quantity.  This  is  largely  owing  to  the  intro- 
duction of  beautiful  coated  papers  which  are  now  produced 
as  cheaply  as  were  the  rag  papers  on  which  newspapers 
were  printed  thirty  years  ago.  The  delightful  half- tone 
pictures  also  have  had  a  large  share  in  the  improved 
appearance  of  printing.  These  are  fully  treated  of  in  the 
chapter  on  photo-mechanical  processes. 

Let  us  first  consider  the  improvements  in  printing- 
machines.  Most  prominent  among  makers  in  America  has- 


PROGRESS   IX   PRINTING. 


349 


been  Richard  Hoo,  and  after  him  Andrew  Campbell,  Tay- 
lor, Potter,  Cottrell,  ete.  Hoc,  Camplx-ll,  and  Taylor  each 
introduced  cylinder  newspajKT  presses,  Wore  the  Civil 
War,  that  would  print  one  thousand  papers  an  hour  on 
one  side,  or  by  straining  could  be  made  to  produce  nearly 

double  that  speed. 

FIG.  84. 


HOE'S  SEXTUPLE  PERFECTING   PRF>*<. 

These  machines  were  so  well  designed  that  the  two  for- 
mer are  manufactured  to-day  with  few  variations  from  the 
early  patterns,  and  can  lx?  found  in  thousands  of  country 
printing-offices.  With  the  war,  newspaj>er  circulations  in- 
creased, and  publishers  demanded  faster  machines.  Both 
Hoe  and  Taylor  met  the  demand  with  double-cylinder 
machines,  in  which  the  bed  of  tvpe  was  made  to  pass 
under  two  impression-cylinders  at  a  single  travel,  so  that 
double  the  work  could  be  done  with  them.  By  making 
the  machine  quite  large  and  heavy,  it  was  possible  to  print 
both  sides  at  once,  on  what  is  called  the  turn-and-cut 
principle,  so  that  these  presses  really  quadrupled  the  speed 
of  the  single  cylinders,  turning  out  usually  two  thousand 
four  hundred  perfected  papers  an  hour,  where  the  single 
cylinder  printed  but  one  thousand  two  hundred  on  one  side 
only.  Soon,  however,  the  New  York  and  Philadelphia 
papers  began  to  break  these  machines  to  pieces  trying  to 


350  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

get  out  of  them  double  the  speed  they  were  designed  to 
furnish.  Then  Hoe  came  to  the  rescue  with  four-,  six,- 
eight-,  and  even  ten-cylinder  machines  which  increased  the 
output  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  cylinders,  so  that  a 
ten-cylinder  press  was  capable  of  turning  out  fifteen  thou- 
sand to  twenty  thousand  papers,  under  favorable  circum- 
stances. These  machines  were  regarded  as  wonders,  and 
they  were  wonderful  in  many  respects.  On  a  big  central 
cylinder  were  wedged  the  pages  of  type,  secured  by  in- 
genious devices  in  "turtles"  to  prevent  the  letters  from 
being  flung  out  by  the  centrifugal  force  of  rotation.  With 
the  best  of  them  some  types  were  always  sure  to  work  out, 
marring  the  print.  Around  the  central  type-cylinder  were 
arranged  the  impression-cylinders,  to  each  of  which  a  feeder 
supplied  single  sheets  of  paper  that  were  carried  around 
the  impression-cylinder  and  printed  as  the  type  came 
around.  If  one  of  the  ten  feeders  accidentally  allowed  a 
sheet  of  paper  to  go  in  crooked,  it  was  very  apt  to  jam  up 
the  press,  and  stop  the  whole  machine.  Further,  the 
machine  was  very  large,  and  required  the  attendance  of 
about  fifteen  men.  It  cost  more  to  print  ten  thousand 
papers  in  this  way  than  it  did  to  print  them  on  single  cyl- 
inders, the  only  gain  being  the  saving  in  time,  the  essential 
thing  in  the  printing  of  newspapers.  It  was  evident  that 
a  better  machine  would  have  to  be  invented.  About  this 
time  Walter  began  to  build  rotary  web  presses  in  London, 
printing  from  the  roll  of  paper.  Hoe  and  Bullock  in- 
troduced the  same  principle  in  the  United  States,  and  the 
machines  began  to  come  into  use  early  in  the  seventies. 
They  would  not  have  been  wholly  successful  but  for  the 
invention,  about  this  time,  of  a  method  of  curving  stereo- 
type plates.  This  made  it  possible  to  print  from  a  cylinder 
without  making  direct  use  of  the  type,  and  with  a  roll  of 


PROGRESS    L\   PRIXTIXG.  351 

nearlv  endless  paper  passing  around  a  cylinder  so  as  to 
come  in  contact  with  another  cylinder  on  which  were 
clamped  the  curved  stereotyjK?  plates,  it  then  became  JM>S- 
sible  to  print  at  railroad  sj>eed,  the  limit  l>eing  set  by  the 
rapidity  with  which  the  paper  could  lx?  cut  and  folded. 
Hoe's  linn  for  a  long  time  controlled  the  market  in  this 
line  of  presses  because  of  a  patent  folder  that  was  alxmt 
three  times  as  speedy  as  any  other  that  had  been  devised. 
In  the  ordinary  types  of  folders,  there  is  a  dull  knife  that 
strikes  the  printed  sheet  of  paper,  doubling  it,  and  thrust- 
ing it  between  two  rollers  so  rotating  together  as  to  draw 
in  the  sheet  so  doubled.  This  dull  knife  has  an  up-and- 
down  motion,  and  will  not  work  satisfactorily  at  a  faster 
sj>eed  than  seven  thousand  an  hour.  Hoe  devised  a  plan 
for  mounting  three  of  these  dull  knives  on  a  cylinder,  so 
that  three  doubling  blows  might  be  delivered  to  the  paper 
every  time  the  cylinder  revolved.  This  secured  almut 
three  times  the  speed  of  the  old  folders,  and  the  patent  was 
worth  a  great  deal  of  money  to  the  Hoes,  as  no  other 
maker  was  able  to  build  as  speedy  presses  as  these  for  a 
number  of  years. 

Within  a  few  years  past  the  firm  of  R.  Hoe  &  Co.  have 
introduced  a  variety  of  valuable  improved  machines. 
Among  these  may  be  mentioned  an  electrotype  perfecting 
press,  with  cover-machine,  paster,  wire-stapling  device, 
and  folder,  designed  especially  for  printing  illustrated 
magazines  and  periodicals.  It  is  really  two  presses  coupled 
together,  one  being  for  the  body  of  the  magazine,  the  other 
serving  to  print  the  cover.  The  folder  and  other  devices 
bring  the  printed  paper  together  and  deliver  the  whole 
bound  ready  for  delivery.  The  speed  for  thirty-two-page 
periodicals  is  ten  thousand  an  hour,  smaller  sizes  being 
proportionately  faster. 

v       w  29 


352  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

A  somewhat  similar  machine  is  made  by  the  same  firm 
for  printing  coverless  illustrated  periodicals,  at  a  speed  of 
four  thousand  to  eight  thousand  an  hour,  doing  fine  work. 

Hoe's  newspaper  perfecting  presses  are  made  in  all  sorts 
of  sizes  and  combinations.  The  speed  is  practically  limited 
to  twenty-four  thousand  an  hour,  but  by  doubling  and 
quadrupling  results  as  high  as  ninety-six  thousand  an  hour 
are  obtained. 

Walter  Scott  has  obtained  over  a  hundred  patents  within 
a  few  years,  and  manufactured  a  most  interesting  line  of 
fast  printing  machines.  Among  them  are  many  cylinder 

FIG.  85. 


WALTER  SCOTT  AND  COMPANY'S  LARGE  INSETTING  NEWSPAPER  PRESS. 

presses  arranged  to  print  from  the  roll,  also  double  cylinder 
machines  for  printing  both  sides  of  the  sheet  before  delivery. 
One  of  his  flat-bed  single  cylinder  machines  prints  from 
the  roll,  on  both  sides  of  the  sheet,  and  delivers  it  folded 
at  a  speed  of  three  thousand  six  hundred  an  hour,  which 
is  the  greatest  amount  of  work  ever  accomplished  with  a 
single  cylinder  machine.  He  has  also  designed  a  series  of 
magazine  presses,  designed  for  fine  work.  He  makes  one 
that  delivers  completed  almanacs  at  a  speed  of  from  eight 
to  fifteen  thousand  an  hour.  His  rotary  web  perfecting 


PROGRESS   AV   PRIXTIXG. 


353 


newspajjer  machines  ojx>rate  satisfactorily  up  to  speeds  of 
seventy-two  thousand  an  hour.  A  numlxT  of  other  firms 
are  now  making  fast  ncwspagxT  presses. 

In  the  development  of  presses  feeding  from  the  roll,  for 
job  printing,  Kidder,  of  Boston,  and  Kekerson,  of  Xew 
York,  have  IXXMI  prominent.  Kidder  has.  devised  a  series 
of  machines  tor  special  work,  printing  from  tyjK»  forms  on 
Hat  Ixils.  Cox,  of  Battle  Creek,  Michigan,  struggled  with 
the  problem  of  printing  newspapers  on  both  sides  from  a 
web  of  pajxT,  using  type-forms  from  a  flat  bed.  lie 
finally  succeeded,  and  has  placed  a  press  of  this  sort  on  the 
market  that  prints  four  thousand  five  hundred  jx'rfected 
sheets  an  hour,  and  d is | tenses  with  all  stereotyping  apparatus. 

Machines  designed  to  sujx^rsede  the  coni[M>sitor  in  tvpe- 
setting  have  been  agitated  lor  some  thirty  years  past.  They 
are  of  two  classes,  either  composing 
the  type,  as  in  hand  setting,  or  com- 
posing a  line  of  matrices  from  which 
a  solid  bar,  or  linotype,  is  cast.  Of 
the  first  kind  the  Thome  and  Em- 
pire machines  are  successful  exam- 
ples. The  Thome  has  an  upright 
cylinder  on  top  of  the  machine,  con- 
taining channels  for  the  type.  The 
ojxirator  manipulates  a  keyboard, 
and  each  touch  of  a  key  releases  a 
type  from  its  channel,  and  it  slides 
by  gravity  to  its  place  in  the  line. 
The  lines  are  pushed  out  into  a 

II  j     .        , ./.    j    i  .    ,  THE  TIIORXE  TYPE-SETTING 

galley  and  justified  by  an  assistant.  MACHINE. 

Dead  type  is  distributed  automati- 
cally by  being  laid  in  the  top  of  the  type  cylinder.     Each 
type  being  differently"  nicked,  and  each  style  of  nick  cor- 


Fio. 


354 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


responding  to  the  form  of  a  type-channel,  the  type  all  fall 
into  their  appropriate  channels  as  the  cylinder  carrying 
them  comes  around. 

The  Empire  is  somewhat  similar,  but  employs  a  separate 
machine  to  do  the  distributing,  the  type  being  pushed  into 
little  trays  and  carried  by  a  boy  to  the  composing  machine. 

FIG.  87. 


THE  EMPIRE  TYPE-SETTING  MACHINE. 


At  the  top  of  this  machine  are  three  cases,  containing 
eighty-four  channels,  each  in  a  separate  cradle  with  glass 
fronts.  The  cradles  are  tipped  up  so  that  the  type  in  the 
cases  is  all  in  view  of  the  operator  through  the  glass 
fronts. 

Behind  the  bottom  of  each  channel  of  the  case  is  a  steel 


PROGRESS   IX   PRIXTL\0.  355 

pusher,  A,  which  the  depression  of  the  correspmding  key 
B  will  force  through  the  slot  at  the  bottom  of  the  ease 
against  the  foot  of  the  lowest  type  in  the  channel,  which  it 
will  force,  forward,  out  of  the  ease.  The  key  being  released, 
a  spring  withdraws  the  pusher,  and  the  row  of  tyi>cs,  under 
their  own  weight  and  that  of  a  free  slug,  falls  to  the  bot- 
tom of  the  channel,  leaving  the  next  type  in  jxisition  to  be 


Fio.  88 


THE  EMPIRE'S  METHOD  OK  RELEASING  THE  TYPE. 

forced  out  by  a  pusher  when  its  key  is  again  touched.  As 
soon  as  the  key  is  released  the  corresponding  type  drops  or 
slides  foot  foremost  down  the  glass  to  its  place  in  the  line. 
A  cam  running  in  a  race  drives  each  letter  as  it  drops,  and 
the  whole  line,  ahead,  keeping  a  place  continually  open  for 
another  type,  and  pushing  the  line  toward  the  justifier. 
That  individual  holds  in  his  left  hand  a  little  device  called 
a  grab,  adjusted  to  the  required  measure,  and  draws  the 
needed  length  for  a  line  into  the  upper  end  of  a  galley  that 
takes  the  place  of  a  composing-stick.  Convenient  to  his 
hand  are  a  lot  of  thumb-pieces,  which  when  pinched  by 
the  justifier  leave  a  space  in  his  fingers,  and  with  the  dif- 
ferent thicknesses  of  these  he  spaces  out  or  justifies  his 

29* 


356  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

line,  at  the  same  time  reading  it  and  correcting  any  surface 
errors. 

Other  machines,  as  the  Lanston  monotype,  dispense  with 
distribution  by  casting  new  type  for  each  setting.  When 
the  type  is  dead,  it  is  simply  thrown  into  the  melting-pot. 

Two  successful  machines  on  the  line-casting  principle 
have  been  introduced,  the  Rogers  typograph  and  the  Mer- 
genthaler  linotype.  The  typograph  operates  from  a  key- 
board, the  matrices  being  assembled  for  casting,  and  re- 
turned to  position  by  raising  a  hinged  frame  which  allows 
them  to  slide  back  to  place. 

The  Mergenthaler  linotype  machine  is  in  use  in  the  lead- 
ing newspaper  offices  of  the  world.  It  is  not  properly  a 

FIG.  89. 


THE  MERGENTHALER  LINOTYPE  MACHINE. 


type-setting  machine,  but  produces  and  assembles,  side  by 
side,  metal  bars  or  slugs,  each  of  the  length  and  width  of 
a  line  of  type,  and  having  on  the  upper  edge  the  type 
characters  to  print  an  entire  line.  These  bars,  having  the 


PROGRESS   L\   PRINTING. 


357 


appearance  of  solid  lines  of  type,  and  answering  the  same 
purpose,  are  called  linotypes.  When  assembled  in  columns 
side  by  side,  they  constitute  jointly  a  form,  presenting  on 
its  surface  the  same  ap|>earance  as  a  form  of  ordinary  tyj>e, 
and  adapted  to  be  used  in  the  same  manner.  After  Ix-ing 
used,  the  linotypes  are  returned  to  the  melting-pot  to  l>e 
recast  into  other  lines,  thus  doing  away  entirely  with  dis- 
tribution. The  machine  contains  a  large  number  of  small 

Fio.  90. 


THE  LINOTYPE  MECHANISM. 

brass  matrices,  representing  the  different  letters  and  charac- 
ters. These  are  stored  in  the  matrix  magazine  shown  in 
the  accompanying  cut.  When  one  of  the  finger-keys,  as  D, 
is  depressed,  it  permits  a  single  matrix,  bearing  the  corre- 
sponding character,  to  fall  out  of  the  mouth  of  the  maga- 
zine, and  downward  through  channel  E  to  an  incline*}  belt, 
F,  by  which  the  matrices  are  carried  down  one  after  an- 
other, and  delivered  into  the  slotted  assembling  block  G 


358  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

in  which  they  are  set  up  or  composed  side  by  side  in  a  line 
or  row.  A  stationary  box,  H,  contains  a  series  of  spaces,  I, 
and  a  delivery  service  connected  with  the  finger-bar  J,  by 
which  the  spaces  are  discharged  and  permitted  to  fall  into 
line  at  their  proper  places.  When  enough  matrices  and 
spaces  are  assembled  in  the  block  G  to  complete  one  line 
of  print,  they  are  transferred,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines 
and  arrow,  to  the  face  of  a  vertical  mould- wheel,  K,  where 
they  form  the  face  or  top  of  a  mould.  Molten  type-metal 
being  forced  into  this  mould  from  the  melting-pot  M,  by 
the  action  of  the  pump,  a  slug  or  linotype  is  cast  bearing 
the  characters  of  a  line  on  its  face.  After  the  assembled 
matrices  have  thus  answered  their  purpose  in  front  of  the 
mould,  it  is  necessary  to  distribute  them  and  return  them  to 
the  magazine,  from  which  they  are  again  in  due  time  dis- 
charged in  order  for  use  in  succeeding  lines.  To  accom- 
plish this  restoration  to  place  the  matrices  are  lifted  from 
the  mould,  as  shown  by  the  dotted  lines  and  arrows,  into 
contact  with  the  plate  R,  on  whose  lower  side  they  are  sus- 
pended by  little  grooves.  This  plate  then  rises,  as  indi- 
cated by  dotted  lines,  lifting  the  entire  line  of  matrices  to 
the  distributing  mechanism  at  the  top  of  the  magazine. 
The  spaces  remain  behind  when  the  matrices  are  lifted  to 
the  distributor,  and  are  transferred  laterally  to  the  box  or 
holder  H,  to  be  used  again. 

It  must  be  borne  in  mind  that  all  these  operations  pro- 
ceed while  the  compositor  goes  on  working  the  keyboard, 
very  much  as  he  would  run  a  typewriter.  He  rattles  off 
a  line,  pulls  a  lever,  and  the  machine  does  the  rest  auto- 
matically. The  speed  is  ordinarily  about  four  thousand 
ems — or  some  ten  thousand  letters — per  hour,  though 
double  this  has  been  accomplished  as  a  matter  of  record. 
Among  the  conveniences  of  the  machine  may  be  noted  the 


PROGRESS   IN  PRL\TL\0.  359 

fact  that  the  length  of  lino  may  l>e  altered  by  changing  the 
mould,  and  that  by  using  a  mould  of  larger  size  as  to 
width,  extra  space  may  l>e  obtained  l>etween  the  lines, 
which  are  thus  leaded  automatically.  In  order  to  make 
corrections  the  method  is  to  throw  away  the  lines  containing 
errors  and  substitute  others  correctly  composed. 

While  the  Mergenthaler  machine  just  dcscrilx»d  has 
proved  entirely  satisfactory  for  newspaj)ers,  it  does  not 
produce  a  face  satisfactory  to  magazine  publishers,  and 
such  continue  to  set  their  type  by  hand  or  use  such 
machines  as  the  Empire.  There  is  a  foreign  machine, 
invented  by  a  Catholic  priest,  Father  Calendoli,  which  is 
said  to  distance  all  the  machines  in  use.  The  keyboard 
includes  fifteen  alphabets,  each  of  which  is  arranged  in  a 
square.  The  order  of  the  keys  in  one  square  Is  made  very 
favorable  to  the  spelling  out  of  a  number  of  common  words 
and  combinations.  The  order  of  the  keys  in  the  next  square 
is  such  as  to  facilitate  the  spelling  of  another  set  of  words, 
and  so  on  through  the  fifteen  alphabet-squares.  The  capitals 
and  points  are  arranged  in  a  long  row%  the  more  common 
ones  being  repeated.  Thus,  letters  are  distributed  over  the 
board  according  to  the  frequency  of  their  use.  The  object 
of  this  is  to  enable  the  ojxrator  to  manipulate  the  keys  as 
the  piano  is  played — with  all  ten  fingers.  He  can  do  this 
because  such  words  as  "  write"  are  to  be  found  with  their 

it  e  t 

five  letters  practically  in  order,  as  wr  e,  or  w   t  ,  or  wri  e — 

ri 

always  continuously  from  left  to  right,  so  that  the  five  can 
be  rattled  off  with  rapidity.  The  keys  are  connected  by 
electric  wrires  so  that  they  move  little  magnets  that  pull  a 
slide  and  release  a  type  from  one  of  a  series  of  upright 
channels,  when  it  slides  down  to  its  place  in  the  line. 


360  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

The  arrangement  is  such  that  the  type  represented  by  the 
key  first  struck  is  sure  to  reach  its  place  before  any  letter 
released  later  can  get  there.  The  speed  claimed  for  this 
machine  is  fifty  thousand  letters  per  hour,  which  is  too 
great  for  credence.  Superior  operators  on  other  machines 
do  not  set  over  ten  thousand  letters  per  hour,  and  if  this 
piano-playing  idea  proves  to  add  fifty  per  cent,  to  the  speed 
it  will  have  done  all  that  can  reasonably  be  expected  of 
such  a  system.  It  remains  to  be  proved  whether  the  gain 
in  the  arrangement  of  the  keyboard  is  a  real  one,  or 
whether  there  is  as  much  lost  by  looking  up  and  reaching 
for  far-off  keys  as  is  saved  by  the  convenient  arrangement 
of  letters  when  found.  If  the  idea  prove  practical  it 
should  become  in  time  a  feature  not  only  of  all  type- 
setting machines,  but  of  typewriters  and  similar  keyboard 
machines. 

A  German  type-setting  machine  has  just  been  announced 
from  Berlin  under  the  name  "  plectrotype."  It  consists  of 
a  form  of  typewriter  that  punches  holes  in  a  paper  tape. 
The  tape  may  then  be  read  for  corrections,  which  are  made 
by  hand,  after  which  the  tape  is  fed  to  an  automatic  type- 
setter that  selects  the  proper  types  by  means  of  electric 
currents  set  up  by  wires  forming  connections  as  they  pass 
the  perforations  in  the  paper.  The  machine  is  wholly 
automatic,  requiring  but  one  person  to  attend  several  of 
them — put  in  dead  type  for  distribution,  take  away  com- 
posed type,  and  keep  up  the  supply  of  copy-tape.  It  has 
five  times  the  speed  of  keyboard  machines,  composing 
twenty  thousand  ems  an  hour.  If  this  invention  proves 
to  be  what  is  claimed  for  it,  editors  will  in  time  set  up 
their  articles  on  the  typewriter,  read  and  correct  the  copy- 
tape,  and  pass  it  on  to  the  composing  machines,  dispensing 
entirely  with  the  compositor. 


PROGRESS   L\   PKIXTIXG.  361 

Paul  F.  Cox,  of  Battle  Creek,  Michigan,  has  recently 
designed  a  machine  for  setting  tyj>e,  in  which  the  spacing 
of  the  lines  is  accomplished  by  using  crimped  spaces. 
The  lines  are  simply  set  to  the  full  width,  or  wider,  and 
then  subjected  to  a  pressure  which  reduces  the  thickness 
of  the  crimped  sjuices  so  that  the  line  is  of  the  proper 
length. 

General  T.  T.  Heath,  of  Cincinnati,  is  the  inventor  of 
another  machine,  which  he  styles  a  matrix-making  device. 
This  has  a  keylxnml,  o|>erating  like  a  tyj>ewriter,  to  so 
indent  the  letters  into  a  paj>er  that  the  pa|>er  may  l>e  used 
as  a  matrix  to  make  a  cast  from,  as  of  a  page  at  a  time. 
This  method  has  the  advantage  of  utilizing  the  original 
punches,  and  thus  securing  clearness  of  outline  for  the 
letters,  but  it  is  obvious  that  the  correction  of  errors  must 
be  a  tedious  affair. 

Various  improvements  in  tyj>e  have  apj>eared  within  a 
few  years.  What  is  called  self-spacing  tyj>e  has  proved  a 
great  convenience  in  table  work  and  the  like.  It  is  so 
proportioned  that  there  is  no  difficulty  in  bringing  a  word 
or  figure  in  one  line  exactly  below  one  in  the  previous  line. 
This  was  not  easy  with  other  kinds  of  type,  because  of  the 
great  variation  in  thickness  of  the  letters.  The  present 
year  (1895)  a  new  alloy  for  type-metal  has  apj>eared  in 
the  market  that  mav  create  a  revolution.  A  mixture  of 

w 

lead,  tin,  and  antimony  is  now  used,  but  this  new  alloy  is 
said  to  be  very  much  lighter  and  harder.  The  makers  do 
not  tell  us  what  it  contains,  but  it  is  presumed  that  alumi- 
num is  one  of  the  components.  It  is  so  tough  as  to  render 
copier-facing  and  electrotyping  entirely  unnecessary. 

Color-printing  has  progressed  as  rapidly  as  any  other 
branch  of  the  business.  The  improvement  in  inks  and 
paper  has  helped  the  production  of  beautiful  effects.  For 


362  WONDERS  OF  MODERN , MECHANISM. 

some  years  various  experimenters  have  endeavored  to 
produce  illustrations  in  the  three  primary  colors,  so  super- 
posed as  to  give  the  effect  of  all  the  colors.  This  result 
has  at  last  been  attained,  and  is  more  fully  described  in 
the  chapter  on  "  Photo- Mechanical  Processes." 


PHOTOMECHANICAL  PROCESSES. 

The  Development  of  the  Art  of  Ornamental  Illustrations  in  Con- 
nection with  Printing,  culminating  in  Three-color  Half-tone 
Pictures. 

THE  term  "  photomechanical"  is  applied  to  any  of  the 
modern  processes  for  the  production  of  illustrations,  as  for 
books  and  periodicals,  in  which  the  work  is  done  partly 
by  photography  and  partly  by  machine  or  hand.  During 
recent  years  photography  has  become  a  most  important 
branch  of  illustrative  work,  and  has  been  utilized  to  such 
an  extent  that  wood-engraving  has  gone  into  a  serious 
decline.  The  new  processes  have  the  advantage  of  being 
more  accurate  and  more  artistic,  and  of  requiring  less  time 
and  less  money  for  their  production. 

There  has  existed  much  confusion  of  nomenclature 
among  the  various  processes  that  have  been  devised  for 
superseding  engraving  by  hand,  so  much  so  that  the  Inter- 
national Photographic  Congress  of  1889  gave  prescribed 
definitions  for  leading  words  in  the  trade,  in  the  hope  of 
regulating  the  matter  so  that  the  names  used  would  have 
a  definite  meaning.  This  confusion  of  names  came  from , 
a  desire  on  the  part  of  individual  firms  to  impress  the 
public  with  the  idea  that  they  had  a  process  which  was 


PHOTOMECHANICAL    PROCESSES.  363 

better  than  that  of  others,  and  each  one,  to  distinguish  his 
process,  gave  it  some  high-sounding  name,  when  in  reality 
it  was  the  same  process  used  by  others  under  a  ditlcrcnt 
name. 

The  Congress  we  have  referred  to  adopted  the  following 
names:  Photoch Tomography,  for  the  art  of  reproducing, 
by  the  printing  press,  photographic  images  in  several 
colors ;  photooollography,  for  the  art  of  producing  plates 
for  printing  by  the  gelatin  process  ;  photoglyph tographv, 
for  the  production  of  photoengraved  plates  in  intaglio,  that 
is,  with  indented  instead  of  raised  printed  surfaces;  photo- 
plastography,  for  those  processes  in  which  a  plastic  sub- 
stance is  so  acted  on  by  light  and  water  a.s  to  change  its 
form,  in  accordance  with  a  negative,  and  become  suitable 
for  direct  printing  on  paper;  photoprint,  for  any  print 
obtained  by  any  one  of  the  photomechanical  processes; 
phototypography,  for  any  of  the  mechanical  processes  of 
engraving  that  produce  a  relief  plate  that  can  lx»  printed 
from  with  tyjx?. 

While  the  alx)ve  are  the  names  which  should  be  used 
principally,  and  which  doubtless  will  Ix?  used  in  the  future, 
yet,  for  the  sake  of  a  brief  historical  record  of  the  develop- 
ment of  these  processes,  it  is  necessary  to  revert  to  many 
of  the  old  names. 

The  first  discovery  of  which  there  is  record  was  of  a  pho- 
toplastic  process.  It  was  about  1822  that  Joseph  Nicephore 
Niepce  produced  a  printing  plate  by  coating  a  metal  sur- 
face with  a  solution  of  bitumen,  and  exposing  the  same  to 
the  image  in  a  camera,  after  which  the  parts  not  rendered 
insoluble  by  the  light  were  washed  away  with  oil  of  lav- 
ender, and  an  etching  acid  was  used  to  bite  into  the  metal 
beneath.  In  this  process,  rude  as  were  its  results,  we  have 
the  leading  elements  of  all  the  processes  of  to-day,  the 

80 


364  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

later  methods  tending  to  perfect  and  beautify  the  work, 
but  operating  on  the  same  general  principles. 

The  next  inventor  who  appears  on  the  scene  had  an 
almost  equally  noneuphonious  name — Mungo  Ponton.  In 
1 838  he  discovered  that  gelatin  was  better  than  bitumen  for 
making  plates,  and  he  produced  the  first  photocollograph. 

The  last  great  discovery  upon  which  the  photomechanical 
art  has  been  built  up  was  made  by  Fox  Talbot,  in  1853. 
He  discovered  that  a  film  made  of  gelatin  treated  with  a 
dichromate,  when  dried  at  a  moderate  temperature  and  ex- 
posed to  the  light  below  a  negative,  could  subsequently  be 
used  for  printing  on  the  principle  used  in  lithography. 
Thus  was  produced  the  first  photolithograph,  the  surface 
produced,  after  washing  and  drying,  tending  to  absorb 
water  and  refuse  greasy  ink  in  the  white  parts,  and  to  take 
ink  and  refuse  water  in  the  parts  which  it  was  desired  to 
print. 

Photocollography,  or  the  gelatin  process,  owes  it  great- 
est development  to  Sir  Walter  B.  Woodbury,  who  was 
the  inventor  of  those  improved  methods  commonly  known 
as  the  Woodburytype,  Woodburygravure,  and  stannotype. 
The  Woodbury  process  consists  in  coating  a  glass  plate 
with  collodion  and  afterwards  with  dichromated  gelatin. 
The  plate  being  exposed  under  a  negative,  and  washed  in 
warm  water,  the  soluble  parts  are  removed,  and  the  desired 
design  stands  out  in  relief.  The  gelatin  film  so  made 
becomes  so  hard  when  dry  that  it  can  be  impressed  in  a 
soft  lead  plate,  forming  an  intaglio  mould.  Warm  gelatin 
is  then  poured  on  the  intaglio  plate,  a  sheet  of  prepared 
paper  being  subjected  to  hydraulic  pressure  in  such  man- 
ner as  to  drive  out  the  gelatin  from  the  flat  surfaces,  and 
leave  on  the  paper  a  gelatin  image.  The  metal  plate 
may  then  be  printed  from,  after  the  manner  of  a  copper- 


PHOTOMKCHAXICAL    PROCESSES.  365 

plate,  the  tone  or  gradation  depending  upon  the  thickness 
of  the  gelatin  at  the  various  jx tints. 

The  stannotype  process  is  a  cheapened  form  of  the 
Woodburytype,  an  India-rubber  solution,  tin-foil,  and 

rublxT   rollers   lx'in<r   used    instead  of  the   lead    plate  and 

«*  I 

hydraulic  pressure.  It  is  printed  from  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  Woodburytype. 

The  Woodburygravure  was  the  last  invention  of  the 
late  W.  H.  Woodbury.  It  is  an  adaptation  of  the  Wixnl- 
burvtvpe,  producing  a  result  in  imitation  of  photogravure. 
In  this  proeess  the  unsightly  margins  are  masked  so  that 
there  is  no  serious  amount  of  mechanical  trimming  to  do 
later. 

The  Albertype  or  collotype  process  is  one  which  has 
been  blessed  by  a  great  variety  of  manufactured  and  high- 
sounding  names.  In  this  a  pieee  of  ground  plate  glass 
receives  a  film  of  dichromated  gelatin  and  albumen. 
After  receiving  a  second  coat  of  gelatin,  it  is  dried  and 
exposed  beneath  a  reversed  negative,  then  soaked,  hardened 
with  alum,  and  dried.  The  plate  so  made  may  be  stuck  in 
plaster  on  the  Ixxl  of  a  lithographic  press,  and  printed  in 
the  ordinary  manner.  The  heliotype,  artotype,  and  indo- 
tint  processes  are  slight  modifications  of  the  above. 

For  phototypographic  printing  a  variety  of  fancy  names 
are  appended  to  the  processes,  but  all  of  them  are  virtually 
one.  A  sheet  of  chromatized  gelatin  is  exposed  under  a 
negative,  the  light  that  shines  through  making  the  contigu- 
ous parts  of  the  gelatin  film  insoluble  and  incapable  of 
absorbing  water.  The  gelatin  is  next  soaked  in  water  to 
swell  the  soluble  parts,  or  the  soluble  parts  are  washed 
away.  In  either  case  a  mould  can  be  obtained,  in  wax 
or  plaster,  from  which  an  electrotype  may  be  made  for 
printing  with  type  on  any  ordinary  printing- press. 


366  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

In  phototypography,  or  process-work,  as  the  last-de- 
scribed method  is  often  loosely  called,  there  are  two  com- 
mon methods,  the  line  engraving  and  the  half-tone.  The 
line  method  is  that  in  which  the  picture  appears  in  sharply 
defined  lines,  reproduced  from  a  pen-drawing,  a  reprint  cut, 
or  the  like.  These  are  usually  reduced  in  size  by  photog- 
raphy, a  one-half  reduction  of  a  drawing  going  far  toward 
hiding  minor  defects. 

Half-tones  present  a  surface  of  very  fine  dots,  giving 
tones  and  shades  of  exquisite  beauty,  but  exhibit  no  sharp 
lines  of  any  sort.  For  these  a  glass  screen  is  used  in 
taking  the  photograph.  This  screen  has  a  number  of  fine 
black  lines  ruled  on  it  so  as  to  cross.  This  ruling  is  done 
with  a  diamond  point,  and  the  closeness  of  the  lines  deter- 
mines the  fineness  of  the  resultant  picture,  practice  varying 
between  seventy-five  lines  per  inch  for  newspaper  illustra- 
tion and  two  hundred  Hues  per  inch  for  fine  magazine 
reproduction.  These  lines  on  the  screen  being  filled  in 
with  a  fine  black  substance  interrupt  the  light  that  goes  to 
the  negative,  with  the  result  that  the  image  formed  is  all  in 
dots  that  vary  in  size  according  to  the  amount  of  light  that 
struggles  through  the  screen  at  that  point. 

The  latest  and  greatest  success  in  photomechanical  pro- 
cesses is  in  the  department  of  photochromography.  In 
1865,  Henry  Collin,  of  England,  suggested  that  if  three 
photographs  of  the  same  thing  were  taken  in  red,  blue, 
and  yellow  light  respectively,  and  the  plates  made  from  the 
same  printed  in  the  same  colors,  one  on  top  of  the  other,  a 
picture  printed  in  the  colors  of  nature  ought  to  result,  since 
there  would  be  combined  all  the  primary  colors.  A  num- 
ber of  inventors  have  struggled  with  the  problem  ever 
since,  but  the  mechanical  difficulties  encountered  have  been 
so  great  as  to  delay  success  until  the  present  year  (1895). 


PHOTOMECHANICAL    PROCESSES.  367 

For  several  years  back  the  public  has  Ixvn  informed  j>eri- 
odically  that  the  result  had  been  obtained,  but  when  the 
demonstration  cam;1  it  appeared  that  the  experimenters 
were  too  eager  to  accept  approximate  results,  and  rushed 
before  the  public  with  an  incomplete  method.  In  May, 
181)5,  however,  the  In/and  Printer,  of  Chicago,  contained 
two  of  these  three-color  pictures,  produced  by  photographic 
half-tones,  that  are  most  artistic  in  apj>earance,  and  prove 
that  the  process  is  at  last  on  a  commercial  footing.  To 
make  these  pictures  three  negatives  are  used,  the  plates 
being  color  sensitized  by  means  of  three  different  dyes, 
each  of  which  absorbs  one-third  of  the  spectrum  and 
reflects  the  other  two-thirds.  In  photographing,  color- 
screens  are  used  to  absorb  those  rays  which  are  not  wanted 
for  a  particular  plate.  Three  half-tone  electrotypes  are 
made  from  the  photographs  so  taken — one  for  printing  in 
yellow,  another  for  red,  and  a  third  for  blue.  As  each 
plate  has  failed  to  receive  the  light  of  the  other  colors,  if 
correctly  made,  the  printing  will  be  a  reproduction  of  the 
original  in  the  colors  of  nature.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  this 
result  is  not  wholly  accomplished,  for  though  the  three 
plates  when  printed  approach  in  value  a  high-class  chromo 
in  forty  or  fifty  colors,  yet  at  the  present  stage  of  the  art 
they  fail  to  equal  it,  mainly  because  there  are  no  inks  in 
use  of  the  necessary  transparency.  No  doubt  ink -makers 
will  in  time  meet  the  demand.  For  the  present  the  most 
that  can  fairly  be  said  of  these  pictures  is  that  they  are 
better  than  any  other  three-color  pictures  that  the  world 
has  yet  seen,  and  certainly  equal  to  the  results  obtained  by 
the  old  methods  where  six  or  eight  colors  were  used.  * 


30* 


368  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


STEREOTYPING  AND  ELECTROTYPING. 

The  most  Recent  Processes  in  Kindred  Arts  that  have  contributed 
much  to  the  Perfection  of  Printing. 

THE  duplication  of  printers'  forms  by  stereotyping  or 
electrotyping  may  be  performed  for  any  or  all  of  several 
objects — the  saving  of  the  wear  on  the  type  in  printing, 
the  convenience  of  having  the  type  released  for  other  uses, 
or  to  secure  several  casts  or  plates  that  may  be  printed  on 
different  presses  at  the  same  time.  Stereotyping  is  the 
ruder  process  of  the  two,  and  is  used  principally  for  daily 
newspapers,  where  time  has  to  be  saved.  Electrotyping 
produces  better  results,  and  is  usually  adopted  in  the  case 
of  magazines  and  books. 

Early  printers  tried  stereotyping  for  the  purpose  of 
avoiding  the  errors  that  might  creep  into  pages  of  movable 
type,  kept  standing  and  liable  to  squabbling  or  other  de- 
rangement. Brass  appears  to  have  been  the  metal  at  first 
used  for  this  purpose,  impressions  of  the  form  being  taken 
in  loam  moulds.  About  1700  a  German  clergyman,  Jean 
Muller,  tried  fusing  the  backs  of  the  pages  of  type  by 
resting  them  on  a  hot  plate.  In  this  way  he  secured  pages 
of  the  New  Testament  that  were  proof  against  falling 
apart.  About  1725  the  plaster  process  of  stereotyping  was 
introduced,  consisting  in  the  use  of  a  plaster- of- Paris 
mould,  from  which  casts  were  made  in  type  metal,  with 
very  fair  results.  This  was  the  ordinary  process  up  to 
the  time  when  the  paper  process  was  invented,  apparently 
by  several  individuals  working  independently.  It  has 
been  somewhat  improved  by  later  users,  and  is  the  process 
commonly  used  to-day  for  all  sorts  of  stereotyping.  This 


AXD    ELECTROTYPIKQ. 


369 


method  derives  its  name  from  the  use  of  a  paper  mould, 
formerly  termed  a  Hong,  now  commonly 'a  matrix-paper, 
which  is  formed  by  pasting  together  several  thicknesses  of 
paper.  This  is  laid  wet  upon  the  face  of  the  form,  and 
Ix-aten  with  a  brush  until  the  softened  pajKT  sinks  well  into 
all  the  interstices  of  the  form,  making  a  clear  impression  of 

FIG.  91. 


SCOTT'S  CASTING-BOX   FOR  CURVED  STEREOTYPE  PLATES. 

the  type.  The  whole  is  then  squeezed  in  a  press,  and  the 
matrix  is  well  dried,  after  which  a  cast  may  be  taken  from 
it.  A  recent  improvement  in  this  provides  the  use  of  a 
rolling  matrix-press.  The  form  is  simply  laid  on  the  bed 
of  the  press  with  the  prepared  matrix  on  top.  Being  run 
under  a  heavy  roller  it  is  quickly  impressed,  and  may  then 


370  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

be  steam-dried  and  cast.  Until  1893  the  matrix,  being 
moist,  had  to  be  thoroughly  dried  before  a  good  cast  could 
be  obtained.  Since  then  a  dry  matrix-paper  has  been  in- 
troduced, which  is  said  to  give  good  results. 

In  casting  for  daily  papers,  a  curved  plate  is  generally 
desired,  and  this  is  obtained  by  the  use  of  a  curved  cast- 
ing-box, as  shown  in  the  cut  (Fig.  91).  Within  this  the 
matrix-paper  is  simply  curled  into  shape,  and  as  the  hot 
metal  is  poured  in  its  weight  presses  the  matrix-paper  into 
correct  form.  When  cast,  the  plate  must  be  sawed,  trimmed, 
and  bevelled,  after  which  it  is  ready  to  be  clamped  on  the 
press.  To  such  perfection  has  this  process  been  brought 
that  during  the  rush  of  getting  off  the  last  plates  of  a  daily 
paper  not  more  than  ten  or  twelve  minutes  elapse  between 
the  time  the  form  is  brought  to  the  matrix-press  and  the 
plate  is  on  the  press  ready  for  printing. 

For  job-work  the  plates  are  usually  cast  flat,  and  may 
be  screwed  on  to  wood  bases,  though  this  method  is  going 
into  disuse  in  favor  of  electrotypes. 

Electrotype  plates  are  made  on  a  different  principle.  In 
this  process  the  first  cast  is  made  in  beeswax.  The  wax  is 
melted  in  a  kettle  and  poured  out  on  a  flat  plate  called  a 
moulding-case.  When  this  moulding-case  bears  a  film  of 
wax  about  the  sixth  of  an  inch  in  thickness  it  is  placed  in 
the  moulding-press.  The  form  of  type  to  be  reproduced, 
having  been  dusted  with  black  lead  (plumbago),  is  laid  face 
downward  upon  the  wax  surface  and  subjected  to  a  mod- 
erate squeezing  in  the  moulding-press.  The  wax  matrix 
is  next  trimmed  up  on  the  edges  and  receives  a  thorough 
coat  of  plumbago.  This  matrix  is  then  suspended  in  a 
bath  containing  a  solution  of  sulphate  of  copper  (rarely 
of  nickel).  A  plate  of  copper  is  also  suspended  in  the 
bath,  and  a  battery  or  small  dynamo  is  connected.  Elec- 


STEREOTYPING    AXD    ELECTROTYPIXG.          371 

trical  deposition  of  copjxT  on  the  wax  follows,  and  after 
some  hours  a  sufficiently  thick  shell  has  Invn  formed  for 
use.  This  thin  electrotyj)e  shell  is  then  removed,  washed, 
cleared  of  wax,  and  taken  to  a  furnace,  where  it  is  suf- 
ficiently heated  to  allow  a  plate  of  tin-foil  to  adhere  to  the 
back.  The  shell  next  goes  to  the  backing- stand,  where  it 
is  laid  face  downward  and  a  ladleful  of  electrotype  metal 
is  ]X)iired  on  to  a  thickness  of  alx)ut  one-sixth  of  an  inch. 
After  cooling,  this  plate  goes  to  various  machines  to  be 
planed  to  a  certain  thickness,  trued  up  on  the  margins,  etc. 
It  is  then  subjected  to  a  critical  examination,  and  trued 
up  by  hammering  on  the  back,  after  which  it  is  ready  to 
be  mounted  on  a  block  and  printed  from.  It  is  often 
desirable  to  make  corrections  in  electrotype  plates,  which 
may  be  accomplished  by  driving  through  a  sharp  punch, 
and  inserting  type  to  take  the  place  of  letters  thus  obliter- 
ated. The  type  are  crowded  in  to  the  level  of  the  face  of 
the  plate  and  cut  off,  so  that  they  virtually  lx?come  a  part 
of  the  plate. 

Walter  Scott  &  Co.  have  introduced  within  a  few 
months  the  electroplate  bending  machine  shown  in  the 
illustration.  The  electroplate  is  introduced  between  the 
resilient  steel  plates  shown  in  the  cut,  a  press-board  being 
put  over  the  surface  of  the  plate  to  prevent  injury  against 
the  steel.  The  two  are  then  drawn  round  by  the  cylinders 
between  a  series  of  small  rolls  hinged  on  chains  at  their 
ends,  these  rolls  being  close  together.  They  travel  over 
the  surface  of  the  steel  plate,  advancing  forward  at  one- 
half  the  speed  of  the  plate.  This  difference  in  speed  is 
caused  by  the  rolls  that  revolve  between  the  steel  plate  and 
the  concave  back.  These  rolls  are  supported  their  entire 
length  against  the  concave  surface  between  which  they 
pass  as  the  cylinder  is  turned  round.  The  edge  where  the 


372 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


plate  enters  is  slightly  larger  than  the  part  where  it  conies 
out.  Thus  the  electroplate  is  bent  by  a  progressive  uniform 
movement,  and  is  supported  in  its  weak  or  thin  parts  by 
the  steel  plate ;  in  other  words,  the  steel  plate  is  bent  by 
the  machine,  and.  incidentally,  the  electroplate. 


FIG.  92. 


BENDING  MACHINE  FOR  ELECTROPLATES. 


There  is  nothing  very  remarkable  about  either  stereo- 
typing or  electrotyping  processes,  except  the  cheapness  and 
excellence  of  the  results  attained  by  development  of  the 
mechanism.  Stereotypes  are  made  as  low  as  half  a  cent 
per  square  inch,  and  electrotypes  for  a  cent  and  a  quarter 
an  inch.  Both  of  these  prices  are  to  large  customers ;  in 
small  lots  the  prices  are  higher. 


SUGAR-MAKING    MACHINERY.  373 


SUGAR-MAKING    MACHINERY. 

The    Mysteries   of    Vacuum-Pans,    Triple    Effects,     Centrifugal 
Machines,  Mixers,  Defecators,  Charcoal  Filters,  etc. 

THE  world's  supply  of  sugar  comes  almost  wholly  from 
the  sugar-cane,  which  grows  most  abundantly  in  Cuba  and 
the  Sandwich  Islands.  The  sugar  is  obtained  by  express- 
ing the  juice,  expelling  the  water  therefrom  by  evaporation, 
throwing  out  the  remaining  molasses,  and  allowing  the 
resultant  sugar  to  crystallize.  The  theory  is  extremely 
.simple,  but  the  perfection  which  the  mechanism  has  obtained 
within  recent  years  makes  the  process  apjK*ar  complicated. 

When  the  sugar-cane  is  brought  to  the  mill  it  is  dunifKil 
on  a  cane-carrier,  which  is  nothing  but  an  endless  travelling 
conveyor,  formed  of  wood  slats  or  boards,  carried  by  two 
endless  chains.  It  is  perhaps  six  feet  wide  in  the  larger 
sizes,  and  feeds  the  cane  slowly  to  the  cane-cutter,  if  one 
be  used,  such  cutters  being  not  absolutely  necessary  to  the 
process,  though  a  decided  advantage.  This  cutter  consists 
of  two  large  corrugated  rolls  made  of  iron,  but  having 
steel  rings  on  the  face  which  are  so  cast  as  to  present  cor- 
rugations or  undulations  of  surface  of  a  depth  of  two 
inches  and  a  length  of  six  inches.  These  corrugations  are 
so  zigzagged  that  a  piece  of  cane  cannot  pass  through 
without  being  broken  to  at  most  six  inches  of  length. 
Krajewski,  Pesant  &  Co.,  of  New  York,  control  the 
market  in  these  machines  by  virtue  of  a  patent  on  the 
corrugations.  About  sixty  per  cent,  of  the  juice  is  ex- 
pressed from  the  cane  in  passing  through  the  cutter. 

The  cane- mill — or  sugar-mill,  as  it  is  less  properly 
called — consists  of  three  heavy  cast-iron  rolls,  between 


374  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

which  the  cane  is  passed,  they  being  set  about  half  an  inch 
apart.  The  top  roll  is  called  the  king-roller,  the  lower 
roll,  to  which  the  cane  is  fed,  the  cane  roller,  and  the 
other  lower  roll  the  bagasse- roller.  These  rolls  in  manu- 
facture are  slightly  scored  by  the  lathe-tool,  so  as  to  prevent 
smoothness  and  cause  them  to  grip  the  cane  instead  of 
sliding  over  it.  The  upper  roll  is  the  largest,  and  it  is 
sometimes  thirty-eight  inches  in  diameter,  though  thirty- 
six  is  the  common  size.  A  guide-piece  or  returning-knife 
is  placed  between  the  lower  rolls  to  turn  the  cane  from  the 
cane-roll  so  that  it  will  pass  over  the  bagasse-roll.  The 
mill  is  driven  by  enormous  gearing,  and  is  made  very 
heavy  in  all  its  parts,  because  there  is  no  telling  to  what 
strains  it  may  be  subjected.  The  escaping  juice  flows  into 
a  tank  below.  If  the  juice  is  not  thoroughly  expressed 
by  one  crushing  it  is  put  through  the  mill  again,  after 
which  it  is  thrown  aside  to  be  used  as  fuel  to  feed  the  flame 
under  the  boilers  of  the  establishment. 

The  juice  in  the  tank  under  the  mill  is  in  a  quite  impure 
condition,  and  is  pumped  through  strainers  to  a  higher  tank 
from  which  it  is  fed  by  gravity  to  the  defecators.  This 
consists  of  a  large  open  pan  or  pot,  in  which  a  small 
quantity  of  lime  is  thrown  to  assist  in  settling  the  impuri- 
ties. It  is  slightly  heated  by  steam,  which  coagulates  the 
albumen.  From  the  defecator  the  juice  is  drawn  off  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  leave  the  scum  and  settlings  behind. 

The  next  process  is  the  boiling  of  the  juice  to  evaporate 
the  water,  which  at  this  stage  forms  seven-eighths  or  more 
of  the  juice.  The  old  method  of  doing  this  was  to  flow 
the  liquid  through  a  series  of  open  pans  set  upon  a  furnace. 
Norbert  Rillieux,  of  New  Orleans,  invented  the  vacuum- 
pan  process,  which  is  so  much  better  that  it  has  entirely 
superseded  the  other.  It  has  been  much  improved,  and 


SUGAR-MAKING    MACHINERY. 


375 


the  type  commonly  used  now  Is  called  the  u  triple  effect," 
IxTause  three  vacuum-pans  are  used.  If  four  pans  are 
used  it  is  a  "  quadruple  effect,"  or  any  Dumber  of  pans 
al>ove  one  is  called  u  multiple  effect."  These  vacuum- 
pans  are  it-ally  large  cylindrical  tanks,  round-topped,  and 
having  a  big  pijK1  in  the  top  for  conveying  the  steam  to 
the  next  pan.  Inside  is  a  huge  drum,  with  seven  hundred 
to  one  thousand  cop|>er  tubes,  each  about  two  inches  in 

FIG.  93. 


juici  r»o  OAH.«. 


176- 

5 

-15.4'  VAC* 

3j 

-  a. 

t 

iOb 

> 

L: 

176 

«•••    ^       "S^_ 

*•              ^^^- 

MICt  Ml   OALL*.   ^ 

F 

AT  171° 

• 

-. 

DIAGRAM  OF  THE  TRIPLE-EFFECT  METHOD  OF  EVAPORATION. 

diameter.  In  the  tubes  and  on  top  of  the  drum  the  juice 
circulates.  In  the  drum  and  outside  the  pipes  exhaust 
steam  is  admitted  at  a  temperature  of  about  190°  to  208° 
Fahr.  See  illustration.  This  would  not  be  hot  enough 
to  boil  the  syrup  were  it  not  that  a  partial  vacuum  is 
maintained  in  that  part  of  the  pan  in  which  the  juice  is 
admitted.  In  a  vacuum  water  boils  at  a  much  lower  tem- 
perature, so  that  190°  are  ample  to  set  the  juice  to  steaming 
o  31 


376  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

and  boiling.  The  steam  that  comes  off  the  first  vacuum- 
pan  is  led  to  the  drum  of  the  second  pan,  where  it  boils 
the  juice  brought  in  from  the  first  pan.  A  better  vacuum 
is  maintained  in  the  second  pan,  and  therefore  the  steam — 
which  has  now  fallen  to  160°  or  175° — is  still  sufficient  to 
further  boil  the  liquor.  The  steam  from  the  second  pan 
passes  on  to  the  third  pan  in  the  same  manner,  and  here 
the  vacuum  is  made  as  perfect  as  possible,  partly  by 
pumping  and  partly  by  condensing  the  steam.  The  juice 
is  flowed  from  one  pan  to  another  by  taking  advantage  of 
the  difference  in  pressure,  so  that  no  pumping  is  necessary. 
While  there  is  no  theoretical  limit  to  the  reduction  in 
the  consumption  of  steam  due  to  increasing  the  number 
of  vacuum-pans  in  a  multiple  effect,  the  practical  limit  is 
soon  reached.  The  gain  in  economy  from  each  additional 
vessel  is  a  rapidly-falling  quantity,  and  is  soon  overtaken 
by  the  extra  cost,  complication,  and  loss  by  radiation, 
which  are  practically  constant  for  each  addition,  though 
partially  compensated  for  by  the  reduced  capacity  of  the 
condenser  and  air-pump,  rendered  permissible  by  the  re- 
duction in  the  volume  of  vapor  discharged  from  the  last 
vessel.  This  explains  the  apparent  anomaly  that  the  larger 
the  number  of  vessels  in  the  series,  the  smaller  the  con- 
denser and  air-pump  required.  In  practice,  with  heating 
steam  at  five  to  ten  pounds  pressure,  as  common  in  sugar- 
works,  triple  effects  are  almost  universally  employed, 
having  been  found  to  be  more  economical  than  the  double, 
and  quite  as  satisfactory  as  the  more  costly  quadruple 
effect.  A  type  different  from  that  illustrated  has  been  used, 
having  horizontal  instead  of  vertical  pans,  with  tubes 
about  twelve  feet  long,  provided  with  steam  chambers 
projecting  from  the  main  shell.  The  steam  is  in  the  tubes, 
and  the  liquor  surrounds  them.  The  construction  is 


SUOA  R-MA  KIXG    ^fA  CHIXER  V.  377 

cheaper  than  the  vertical,  but  less  effective.  Some  French 
makers  have  graduated  the  size  of"  the  pans,  giving  in- 
creased heating  surface  as  the  juice  increased  in  intensity, 
but  the  advantage  gained  has  been  so  trifling  that  the  idea 
is  not  copied. 

It  should  be  noted  that  the  temperature  differences  of  the 
triple  effect  are  automatically  adjusted.  When  first  built, 
it  was  thought  necessary  to  add  valves,  by  which  an  at- 
tendant could  add  steam  when  and  where  he  thought  it 

O 

necessary.  This  proved  to  be  a  mistake,  as  should  a  ves- 
sel from  any  cause  fail  to  condense  the  vajx)r  as  fast  as 
it  comes  forward  from  the  previous  pan,  the  vapor  will 
accumulate  and  the  pressure  and  temperature  increase, 
causing  a  twofold  correction. 

Within  a  few  years  two  new  designs  of  triple  effects  have 
been  placed  on  the  market,  the  Yaryan  and  the  Lillie.  In 
both  of  these  the  leading  idea  is,  instead  of  filling  the 
heating  tubes  with  liquor,  to  pass  only  a  small  stream 
through  a  considerable  length  of  steam-heated  tube,  and 
as  far  as  practicable  to  cause  this  liquor  to  form  a  thin  film 
over  the  surface  of  the  tul>e. 

After  passing  through  the  triple  effect,  the  juice,  which 
is  now  sufficiently  thickened  to  be  called  syrup,  is  clarified 
by  further  boiling  and  skimming,  as  there  remain  in  it  im- 
purities that  are  more  easily  removed  at  this  stage  than 
before  reaching  the  triple  effect.  The  clarified  syrup  is 
then  pumped  to  another  vacuum-pan,  where  the  final 
evaporation  takes  place.  By  this  time  it  is  so  free  from 
moisture  that  it  forms  a  sticky  mass  that  flows  with  great 
slowness  and  difficulty.  At  the  bottom  of  the  final  pan 
is  the  strike- valve,  which  is  a  hole  sixteen  or  eighteen 
inches  in  diameter,  through  which  the  pasty  mass  is  drawn 
off,  the  operation  being  termed  a  "strike."  The  mass, 


378  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

which  is  now  a  mixture  of  sugar  and  molasses,  is  passed 
into  cooling  cars,  where  the  sugar  begins  to  crystallize,  and 
the  longer  it  stands,  up  to  a  certain  point,  the  larger  will 
be  the  crystals.  A  mixer,  having  rotating  paddles,  is  next 
employed  to  stir  the  mass,  after  which  it  passes  to  the  cen- 
trifugal machines,  and  the  molasses  is  entirely  got  rid  of  by 
centrifugal  force,  which  throws  it  out  while  retaining  the 
grains  of  sugar.  The  centrifugal  machine  has  an  outer 
case  of  metal,  within  which  is  a  rotating  basket,  so  perfo- 
rated that  the  juice  has  a  chance  to  flow  away.  The  pulling 
of  a  lever  starts  the  rotating  basket,  in  which  perhaps 
two  hundred  pounds  of  sugar  have  been  placed,  and  it 
soon  attains  a  speed  of  one  thousand  revolutions  per  min- 
ute. Three  or  four  minutes  of  this  rapid  whirling  are 
sufficient  to  remove  all  traces  of  moisture. 

Sugar  so  made  is  nearly  white  in  color,  and  in  fit 
condition  for  immediate  use,  but  fashion  has  ordained  that 
it  shall  be  refined  or  whitened,  a  process  that  rather  detracts 
from  the  saccharine  qualities  of  the  sugar,  but  which  ren- 
ders it  of  more  commercial  value  because  it  looks  better. 

The  first  process  in  the  refining  of  sugar  is  to  dissolve  it 
in  hot  water  in  a  cistern.  The  liquor  is  then  pumped  up 
into  tanks  called  blow-up  pans,  where  it  is  treated  much  as 
the  juice  was  in  the  defecator.  The  liquor  next  goes 
through  a  series  of  five  or  six  long  cylindrical  filters  of 
animal  charcoal  and  bone-black.  Then  it  goes  into  a 
vacuum-pan  to  be  evaporated,  and  later  to  a  centrifugal 
machine,  from  which  it  emerges  as  the  granulated  white 
sugar  of  commerce.  If  loaf-sugar  is  desired,  however, 
instead  of  going  into  the  centrifugal  machine,  the  syrup 
is  poured  into  moulds,  and  allowed  to  cool.  The  mould 
of  sugar  is  then  run  under  a  gang  of  small  saws,  set  the 
distance  apart  that  the  lumps  are  to  be.  These  saws  first 


SUGAIt-)TAKL\G    MACHINERY.  379 

cut  the  cake  of  sugar  into  slabs,  then  into  sticks,  and  on 
the  final  cutting  into  lumps. 

The  making  of  sugar  from  l>eet-r<M)t  is  practised  to  some 
extent,  though  it  has  never  been  able  to  coinjK'te  with  the 
sugar-cane  industry.  The  methods  are  numerous.  Some- 
times the  beets  are  placed  in  bags  and  subjected  to  hydrau- 
lic pressure  to  remove  the  saccharine  juices  ;  sometimes 
centrifugal  machines  have  Ixjen  used  to  separate  the  crushed 

FIG.  94. 


CENTRIFTOAL  8TGAROIACHIXE8. 

beet;  sometimes  the  entire  beet  is  macerated,  and  the 
juices  expressed  ;  but  none  of  these  processes  are  entirely 
satisfactory.  What  is  known  as  the  diffusion  process  has 
met  with  the  most  favor.  In  this  system  the  beets  are 
thinly  sliced,  and  passed  through  a  diffuser,  that  circulates 
them  in  water  until  the  saccharine  matter  is  removed  with- 
out the  nuisance  of  added  pulp,  which  is  the  chief  difficulty 
in  the  other  processes.  The  beet-juice  so  obtained  is  then 
defecated,  and  subjected  to  a  process  of  saturation  with 

31* 


380  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

carbonic-acid  gas.  The  juice  so  carbonated  then  goes  to  a 
settling-tank.  It  may  then  be  filtered  and  evaporated  in 
much  the  same  manner  as  the  juice  extracted  from  the 
cane. 

The  use  of  sugar  steadily  increases,  though  its  future 
production  as  an  industry  is  much  clouded  by  trusts, 
politics,  tariffs,  and  revolutions. 


THE    EMERY   TESTING-MACHINE. 

A  Mechanism  indicating  with  Equal  Facility  the  Breaking  Strain 
of  a  Hair  or  an  Egg-shell  and  the  Force  required  to  break  a  Mas- 
sive Steel  Link. 

THE  great  extent  to  which  iron  and  steel  now  enter 
into  the  construction  of  large  and  valuable  machines  and 
structures  has  greatly  increased  the  importance  of  accu- 
rately testing  the  materials  used,  in  order  that  there  may 
be  no  misconception  of  the  strength  of  parts,  with  a  result- 
ant possibility  of  danger  to  those  who  come  in  contact  with 
them.  The  margin  between  the  breaking  strain  of  a  part 
or  mechanism  and  the  strains  which  it  is  liable  to  encounter 
in  actual  use  is  often  ten  to  one — that  is  to  say,  ma- 
chinery is  designed  to  be  ten  times  as  strong  as  theoreti- 
cally it  need  be  to  do  the  work.  In  machines  like  bicycles, 
however,  where  lightness  is  especially  in  demand,  the  factor 
of  safety  may  be  and  is  reduced  to  five  to  one,  and  even 
less.  Some  makers  advertise  that  they  test  the  cranks  of 
their  cycles  to  a  strain  of  six  hundred  pounds.  In  starting 
a  bicycle  the  ordinary  man  will  apply  a  pressure  of  a  hun- 
dred and  fifty  pounds  on  one  of  the  cranks,  so  that  the 
factor  of  safety  in  such  a  case  is  only  four  to  one.  In  high 


THE  EMERY  TESTiyQ-MACHIXK  381 

buildings,  where  time  is  sure  to  create  some  difference  in 
the  strength  of  the  structural  steel,  and  where  the  lives  of 
hundreds  of  occupants  dejHMid  upon  its  solidity,  the  factor 
of  safety  should  be  as  great  as  eight  or  ten  to  one.  The 
same  is  true  of  elevated  railways,  bridges,  and  other 
structures  where  accidents  would  be  peculiarly  disastrous 
and  destructive  to  life. 

It  follows,  of  course,  that  engineers  have  always  paid 
great  attention  to  the  quality  and  strength  of  their  mate- 
rials, and  have  tested  them  in  the  best  manner  known. 
Within  the  last  filly  years  a  variety  of  testing-machines 
have  been  manufactured,  all  of  which  seem  crude  in  com- 
parison with  the  Emery  hydraulic  testing-machine.  Thev 
were  built  like  scale-beams  or  stout  weighing-machines, 
and  in  some  of  the  early  forms  the  balance- weights  were 
scrap-iron,  which  flew  all  over  the  shop  when  the  sj>ecimen 
under  examination  broke.  As  it  is  usual  to  strain  speci- 
mens to  the  break  ing- point,  it  can  be  understood  that 
dodging  was  one  of  the  first  requisites  of  a  good  workman 
with  one  of  these  machines.  A  feature  common  to  all  of 
them  was  the  steel-yard  balance,  resting  on  a  knife-edge. 
The  best  of  these  did  very  well  for  small  work,  and  are  so 
used  all  over  the  world  to-day,  but  for  large  and  heavy 
work  they  are  inadequate,  and  when  the  knife-edges  be- 
come dulled,  they  are  rendered  inaccurate. 

It  was  this  state  of  affairs  which  induced  Mr.  A.  H. 
Emery  to  study  out  new  lines  for  a  machine  equal  to 
the  demands  of  modern  machinery  constructors.  To  say 
that  he  has  succeeded  is  putting  it  mildly.  What  the 
steam-hammer  was  in  its  day  to  the  forger,  so  is  the  Emery 
testing- machine  to  the  mechanical  engineer  of  to-day.  It 
will  exert  a  pressure  of  one  million  pounds,  and  measure 
it  with  perfect  accuracy,  and  the  next  instant  crush  an  egg- 


382  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

shell  and  record  the  minute  power  exerted.  In  a  recent 
government  test  one  of  these  machines  pulled  apart  a 
forged  iron  link,  five  inches  in  diameter  between  the  eyes, 
at  a  strain  of  seven  hundred  and  twenty-two  thousand 
eight  hundred  pounds,  and  immediately  afterwards  pulled 
a  horse-hair  slowly  in  two,  registering  the  facts  that  it 
stretched  thirty  per  cent,  before  breaking,  and  withstood 
sixteen  ounces  of  strain.  What  other  machine  is  there 
that  could  stand  the  rack  of  such  enormous  strains  without 
deterioration  ? 

William  Sellers  &  Co.,  the  owners  of  the  Emery  patent, 
have  somewhat  improved  the  machine  since  its  first  con- 
ception, and  we  will  examine  it  in  its  latest  form.  Its 
essential  peculiarity  is  the  method  by  which  the  stress  pro- 
duced upon  the  piece  tested  is  conveyed  to  the  scale  and 
accurately  weighed  by  mechanism  that  is  practically  fric- 
tionless,  and  not  subject  to  wear,  and  hence  records  every 
increase  in  strain  without  loss  by  friction.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  the  use  of  water  in  a  flat-closed  cylinder  called 
the  hydraulic  support.  The  principle  involved  is  this  :  If 
we  take  a  cylinder  of  water  standing  on  end,  and  place  a 
weight  upon  an  absolutely  tight  plunger  on  top  of  the 
water,  and  if  we  have  a  hole  in  the  bottom  of  the  cylinder 
whose  diameter  is  one  thousandth  of  the  top  aperture  of 
the  cylinder,  upon  which  the  weight  rests,  and  if  we  then 
measure  the  pressure  of  the  water  at  the  little  hole  in  the 
bottom,  we  have  only  to  multiply  it  by  one  thousand  to 
get  the  weight  of  the  load  on  the  cylinder. 

The  means  by  which  Mr.  Emery  produced  an  absolutely 
tight  cylinder  operating  without  appreciable  friction  are 
very  ingenious,  and  will  be  understood  by  examining  the 
accompanying  diagram  of  the  weighing  mechanism.  A  is 
the  hydraulic-support  cylinder,  the  white  space  represent- 


THE  EMERY  TESTING-MACHINE. 


383 


ing  water ;  c  is  the  piston,  and  6  and  dd  are  thin  sheets  of 
metal.  The  piston  rests  on  the  lower  sheet,  and  is  secured 
to  the  cylinder  by  the  sheets  dd,  which  are  flexible,  al- 
lowing a  movement  of  perhaps  three  thousandths  of  an 


FKJ.  'J5. 


DETAILS  OF  WEIGHING   MECHANISM. 


inch,  which  is  all  the  motion  needed  between  a  full  load 
and  no  load.  By  this  arrangement  the  fluid  is  entirely 
enclosed,  and  no  packing  is  required,  and  the  friction  is  all 
in  the  fluid.  A  tube  connects  the  water-chamber  of  the 
hydraulic  support  with  a  smaller  and  similar  chamber,  B. 
The  piston  c'  of  this  latter  chamber  acts  through  the  block 
H  against  the  first  lever  C  of  the  scale,  which  thus  receives  a 
fraction  of  the  load  upon  the  piston  c,  of  the  large  cylinder, 
determined  by  the  difference  in  size  between  the  two  hy- 
draulic cylinders  A  and  B,  which  in  practice  is  much 
greater  than  that  shown  in  the  diagram. 

At  the  upper  left  hand  of  the  larger  figure  in  the  diagram 
y 


384  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

will  be  observed  a  row  of  figures,  and  au  upright  scale 
marked  by  a  long  needle,  F.  When  the  hydraulic  cylinders 
exert  a  pressure  upon  the  first  lever  (7,  this  pressure  is  com- 
municated by  the  arm  D  to  the  lever  E  of  the  poise-frame. 
It  will  be  observed  that  the  lever  E  rests  on  a  knife-edge  like 
the  long  beam  of  any  ordinary  weighing-machine.  From 
this  lever  E  depend  three  weight-holders  technically  termed 
"  poise-frames'7  and  marked  N.  These  have  an  upper  cross- 
head  8  (see  left  figure)  and  a  lower  cross-head  T  united  by 
three  vertical  bars  disposed  at  equal  intervals  about  the 
cross-heads.  These  bars  are  provided  on  their  inner  faces 
with  short  projecting  brackets,  V,  having  a  horizontal  sur- 
face and  a  bevelled  surface  corresponding  with  similar  sur- 
faces formed  on  the  weights  A,  which  are  short  cylinders  or 
rings  with  bevelled  edges.  The  weights  are  carried  by  the 
flat  surfaces  and  centred  by  the  bevelled  surfaces.  M  is 
a  weight-frame  of  similar  construction,  for  carrying  the 
weights  when  not  in  use.  This  weight-frame  can  be  thrown 
in  and  out  of  use  by  operating  the  hand-lever  coupled  to 
the  rod  projecting  from  the  cross-head  R.  The  brackets  on 
the  weight-frame  bars  are  differently  spaced  from  those  on 
the  poise-frame,  and  when  the  weight-frame  is  at  the  top  of 
its  stroke,  it  carries  all  of  the  weights  clear  of  the  poise- 
frame  ;  a  small  movement  downward  transfers  one  weight 
to  the  poise-frame,  the  bevelled  surfaces  on  the  brackets 
centring  the  weight  if  it  becomes  displaced  sideways  by  a 
too  sudden  movement ;  a  further  movement  transfers  an- 
other, and  so  on.  In  the  diagram  the  weights  /  and  g  are 
shown  carried  by  the  poise- frame  and  k  by  the  weight- 
frame,  while  h  is  being  transferred  from  one  to  the  other. 
The  weights  in  the  poise-frame  on  the  left  have  a  value  of 
one  hundred  pounds,  those  on  the  next  frame  one  thousand 
pounds,  and  on  the  last  ten  thousand,  and  the  results 


THE  EMERY  TESTING-MACHINE. 


385 


are  read  on  the  scale  and  by  the  figures  shown  in  the  slot 
adjoining. 

The  indicator-needle  F  constitutes  the  final  lever  of  the 
scale,  having  a  movement  at  the  point  of  about  two  inches, 
and  this  movement  is  calculated  to  lx»  three  hundred  thousand 
times  greater  than  the  movement  of  the  piston  c  in  the 
first  hydraulic  chamber,  and  in  the  largest  sizes  has  Ixvn 
made  to  indicate  six  million  times  as  much.  That  the 
machine  does  not  suffer  by  related  strains  is  shown  by  the 
fact  that  this  needle  returns  to  exact  zero  after  every  trial, 
whether  strained  in  one  direction  by  the  compression  of  a 
piece,  or  in  the  other  by  rending  a  sjxx'imen  in  two.  Tiie 
machine,  as  now  manufactured,  is  diffeient  in  ap|>earance 

Fio.  06. 


THE  EMERY  TESTING-MACHINE— TWO-HUNDBED-THOU8AND-POUND  SIZE. 

from  the  diagram  just  discussed.  While  the  weighing 
mechanism  is  the  same,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  first 
hydraulic  cylinder  is  laid  on  its  side,  so  as  to  constitute  a 
horizontal  rather  than  a  vertical  machine.  This  change 


386  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

affords  certain  advantages  in  overcoming  the  enormous 
shocks  of  recoil.  In  all  but  the  smallest  size  of  machine 
the  weighing-head,  shown  on  the  left  of  illustration,  and  the 
straining-head,  shown  on  the  right,  are  made  so  as  to  rest 
on  wrought-iron  girders,  or  frames,  along  which  they  can 
slide  without  injury  to  anything.  The  machine  here  shown 
is  of  the  two-hundred-thousand-pound  class,  and  back  of 
it,  to  the  right  of  the  weighing  mechanism,  is  shown  a 
pump  for  delivering  the  water-supply  to  the  straining-head, 
which  exerts  the  required  force  through  the  massive  screws 
called  straining-screws,  that  connect  the  heads. 

In  operation,  for  the  purpose  of  insuring  that  everything 
about  the  hydraulic  chamber  has  a  solid  bearing,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  produce  an  initial  loading  of  about  five  per  cent,  of 
the  maximum  load,  for  which  purpose  springs  are  supplied 
to  move  the  draw-bar  in  the  direction  in  which  the  stress  to 
be  applied  to  the  specimen  will  move  it,  and  after  this  the 
scale  is  balanced  by  the  sliding  weights  on  the  poise -beam. 
When  a  specimen  breaks  the  blow  is  carried  to  the  massive 
parts  of  the  weighing-head,  and  is  absorbed  by  them  in 
such  a  manner  as  to  protect  the  more  delicate  hydraulic 
supports,  so  that  these  machines  can  be  used  regularly  for 
breaking  high  steel  specimens  up  to  their  full  capacity 
without  risk  of  injury.  The  weighing- head  is  returned  to 
its  place  on  the  bed  after  movement  due  to  recoil  by  a  set 
of  spiral  springs  locked  up  in  boxes  secured  to  the  bed. 
The  specimens  to  be  broken  are  held  in  dies  that  close  upon 
them  in  such  manner  as  to  insure  their  protection  against 
breakage  in  the  part  weakened  by  the  cutting  of  the  gripped 
part.  When  the  specimen  breaks  it  is  always  firmly  held 
in  the  dies,  so  that  there  is  no  danger  from  flying  pieces, 
which  without  such  protection  would  be  liable  to  scatter 
with  terrific  force.  It  is  surprising  to  note  that  when  rup- 


THE  EMERY   TESTING-MACHINE.  387 

ture  occurs  the  only  noticeable  noise  is  that  of  the  breaking 
piece,  the  machine  readjusting  itself  and  the  parts  sliding 
on  the  frame  almost  noiselessly. 

The  water  for  Gyrating  the  straining-head  is  supplied 
from  the  pump  through  the  jointed  pipes  that  stand  up 
high  on  the  right  of  the  machine.  It  will  be  seen  that 
they  are  connected  with  the  straining-head,  and  being 
arranged  for  either  pressure  or  exhaust,  their  force  may  be 
exerted  either  in  compression  or  tension,  or,  in  simpler  lan- 
guage, arranged  so  as  to  either  push  or  pull. 

The  gearing  on  top  of  the  straining  head  is  designed  for 
operation  either  by  hand  or  power,  moving  the  head  either 
back  or  forth  to  accommodate  the  length  of  sj>ecimens. 

This  machine  is  considered  by  engineers  to  have  reached 
perfection  in  principle,  and  as  marking  an  astonishing 
advance  over  former  types.  Its  invention  necessitated  the 
construction  of  an  exceedingly  powerful  and  costly  appa- 
ratus, constructed  on  somewhat  similar  lines,  for  calibrating 
the  machines  turned  out  and  verifying  by  actual  test  the 
accuracy  of  each  individual  machine  manufactured.  This 
tester  of  testing-machines  will  indicate  a  variation  of  four 
ounces  in  half  a  million  pounds.  A  weight  of  two  hun- 
dred grains  laid  on  the  main  platform  of  this  remarkable 
machine  is  sufficient  to  put  in  motion  material  weighing 
more  than  twenty  thousand  pounds,  as  shown  by  a  varia- 
tion of  the  needle  the  fiftieth  part  of  an  inch,  and  the  sen- 
sitiveness is  the  same  whether  loaded  or  not  loaded. 


32 


388 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


THE  SPECTROSCOPE. 

A  Wide- spread  Field  of  Research  opened  up  by  an  Instrument 
that  was  at  first  little  understood. 

To  that  wonderful  instrument,  the  spectroscope,  we  owe 
nearly  all  the  recent  increase  in  knowledge  of  the  stars.  It 
tells  us  of  what  they  are  made,  and  the  direction  and  speed 
in  which  they  are  journeying.  Let  us  first  consider  what 
the  instrument  is,  and  then  the  principles  on  which  it 
operates.  In  its  simplest  form  it  is  a  glass  prism,  through 

FIG.  97. 


METHOD  OP  OBTAINING  A  SPECTRUM. 


which  a  ray  of  light  is  allowed  to  shine.  This  prism 
disperses  the  light,  giving  the  beautiful  rainbow  colors 
that  children  admire.  These  colors  arrange  themselves 
naturally  in  the  order  of  red,  orange,  yellow,  green,  blue, 
and  violet,  and  their  graduations,  and  form  what  is  called 
a  spectrum.  This  spectrum  is  usually  viewed  through  a 
magnifying  eye-piece,  like  that  of  a  telescope.  There  is 
also  usually  a  minute  scale,  whose  image  is  thrown  upon 
the  spectrum  to  enable  the  observer  to  measure  it.  Instead 
of  the  scale  a  fine  wire  or  line  of  light  from  a  slit  may  be 
moved  over  the  spectrum,  and  by  means  of  a  micrometer- 


THE   SPECTROSCOPE.  389 

screen  the  movement  or  distance  of  any  ]>oint  of  the  spec- 
trum from  any  other  can  Ix1  read  off.  The  tube  through 
which  the  light  enters  should  be  a  coll  i  mat  ing  tube — that  is, 
a  tnl>e  having  glass  lenses  that  cause  the  rays  of  light  to 
enter  in  parallel  lines.  Instead  of  a  simple  prism,  a  train 
of  prisms  or  a  diffraction  grating  is  commonly  used  in  the 
bodv  of  the  instrument.  Such  a  grating  may  be  one  of 
two  kinds — a  transjwrent  or  transmission  grating  composed 
of  glass,  or  a  reflection  grating  made  of  brightly  polished 
speculum  metal.  Upon  one  of  these,  extremely  fine  lines 
are  ruled  by  means  of  a  diamond  point.  To  such  j>erfec- 
tion  has  the  art  of  ruling  these  lines  been  brought  that 
twenty-eight  thousand  eight  hundred  and  seventy-six  have 
been  drawn  within  a  single  inch,  this  result  being  attained 
by  Professor  Rowland,  of  Baltimore.  These  minute  rulings 
act  as  obstacles  to  the  light,  whether  transmitted  or  reflected, 
and  generate  secondary  waves,  which  by  their  interference 
produce  a  sj>ectrum  that  has  the  advantage  of  having  its 
different  parts  equally  extended,  which  is  not  the  case  with 
refraction  spectra,  because  the  violet  end  of  the  spectrum 
obtained  by  a  prism  is  more  refracted  than  the  red  end, 
and  as  a  consequence  the  violet  rays  are  relatively  more 
spread  out,  so  that  the  amount  of  space  occupied  by  these 
rays  is  out  of  proportion  to  the  relative  difference  of  their 
wave-length.  This  defect,  which  is  termed  the  "  irration- 
ality" of  the  prismatic  spectrum,  is  quite  absent  from  that 
obtained  by  means  of  the  diffraction  grating,  as  the  forma- 
tion of  the  spectrum  has  been  seen  in  the  latter  case  to  be 
solely  dependent  upon  the  different  wave-lengths  of  the 
respective  rays. 

If  a  Rowland  concave  grating  is  used  no  observing 
telescope  is  required,  a  real  image  being  formed  that  may 
be  thrown  on  a  screen  or  photographic  plate. 


390 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


In  other  instruments  the  telescope  itself  can  be  moved 
in  the  horizontal  plane,  and  thus  a  fine  wire  across  the 
occular  can  be  brought  into  exact  coincidence  with  any 
part  of  the  spectrum,  and  the  position  may  be  seen  by  the 
amount  of  motion  of  the  telescope,  which  can  be  read  off 


FIG.  98. 


PRINCIPLE  OF  THE  SPECTROSCOPE.— a,  prism ;  6,  telescope  through  which  [the  light 
may  pass ;  c,  magnifying  eye-piece ;  d,  scale. 

from  a  suitable  scale  on  the  stand.  For  astronomical  use 
the  spectroscope  has  a  still  different  form,  and  is  attachable 
to  a  telescope,  through  which  the  light  of  a  star  may  be 
received. 

Owing  to  the  way  in  which  the  rays  are  turned  aside 
from  their  path  in  the  prism,  the  telescope  and  collimator 
in  the  ordinary  forms  of  spectroscope  must  be  placed  at  an 
angle  to  each  other,  but  by  an  ingenious  arrangement  direct- 
vision  spectroscopes  are  made  that  have  the  two  tubes  in 
line,  so  that  they  can  be  conveniently  handled,  or  even 
carried  in  the  pocket.  This  is  possible  because  crown  and 
flint  glass  differ  in  their  power  of  refraction  and  dispersion. 


THE   SPECTROSCOPE.  391 

The  crown  glass,  being  less  dispersive,  is  used  to  bend 
back  the  slightly  refracted  and  much-dispersed  rays  of  the 
flint-glass  prism,  so  that  the  central  position  of  the  dis- 
persed ray  comes  to  form  a  straight  line  with  the  incident 
ray  of  the  collimator. 

The  first  investigation  into  the  s{>ectrtini  of  which  we 
have  record  was  conducted  by  Thomas  Melvin,  of  Edin- 
burgh, who  published  the  result  of  his  exj>eri incuts  in 
1752,  in  a  paj>er  entitled  "  The  Examination  of  Colored 
Flames  by  the  Prism."  After  him  came  Wollaston,  then 
Fraunhofer,  and  Sir  John  Herschel,  each  of  whom  added 
much  to  the  world's  knowledge  of  spectra.  About  1830 
the  spectroscope  was  accepted  as  a  useful  instrument  for 
detecting  substances  in  flames  and  for  analyzing  solutions 
by  noting  their  absorptive  power  on  the  light  passing 
through  them. 

Every  one  of  the  chemical  elements,  as  iron,  lead, 
sodium,  nitrogen,  hydrogen,  etc.,  when  heated  to  a  glowing 
gas  or  vapor  emits  a  light  that  is  different  from  every 
other  element.  The  differences  are  not  readily  perceptible 
to  the  eye,  but  seen  through  the  sj)ectroscope  they  are 
clearly  separated.  Each  element  exhibits  a  series  of  bright 
narrow  lines,  always  occupying  certain  definite  positions, 
which  are  different  for  each  element.  Zinc,  for  instance, 
when  vaporized  and  analyzed  in  the  spectroscope  exhibits 
three  blue  lines  and  one  red  line ;  copper  presents  three 
green  lines ;  hydrogen  gives  double  violet  lines ;  iron 
presents  an  immense  number  of  lines ;  and  other  metals 
have  their  lines,  all  of  which  fall  in  different  places  in  the 
spectrum. 

When  a  substance  is  heated  red-hot  it  gives  a  continuous 
glowing  spectrum,  but,  as  soon  as  it  vaporizes,  the  spectrum 
forms  into  lines.  If  several  substances  are  mingled  the 

32* 


392  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

spectrum  appears  in  the  same  manner,  and  if  vaporized  the 
substances  under  analysis  will  be  revealed  by  their  lines. 
Minute  quantities  that  would  evade  observation  in  any 
ordinary  analysis  are  readily  found  in  this  manner. 

It  was  reserved  for  KirchhofF,  the  renowned  physicist  of 
Heidelberg,  to  show  to  the  world  the  real  importance  of 
the  spectroscope,  in  1859,  by  explaining  the  true  signifi- 
cance of  the  relation  of  the  bright  bands  of  flames  and 
the  dark  lines  of  the  solar  spectrum.  He  identified  the 
dark  lines  at  D  in  the  sun's  spectrum  as  identical  with 
the  bright  lines  of  sodium.  The  lines  were  dark  instead 
of  bright  because  the  strong  light  of  the  sun  absorbed 
those  rays  with  which  the  vapor  would  shine  alone.  It 
followed  that  if  the  sodium  lines  were  recognized  in  the 
sun's  spectrum,  others  might  also  be  found.  By  investi- 
gating on  this  theory  Kirchhoif  by  1861  had  identified 
sodium,  iron,  calcium,  magnesium,  nickel,  barium,  copper, 
zinc,  and  cobalt  as  existing  in  the  sun. 

Since  Kirchhoff  's  time  the  examination  of  the  solar  spec- 
trum has  been  extremely  thorough,  and  nearly  all  of  the 
seventy  or  more  elements  known  on  the  earth  are  known 
to  exist  also  in  the  sun.  There  have  been  found  also  two 
unknown  elements,  which  have  been  named  helium  and 
coronium.  Early  in  1895,  Lord  Rayleigh,  a  British 
physicist,  announced  that  he  had  found  helium  on  the 
earth,  in  connection  with  a  new  gas,  argon,  previously 
discovered  by  him.  His  discovery  of  helium  was  very 
shortly  confirmed  by  other  physicists.  Scientists  are  now 
in  hopes  that  coronium  will  be  found  also.  Thus  was 
accomplished  the  wonderful  result  of  finding  a  new  sub- 
stance ninety-five  million  miles  away  several  years  before  it 
was  discovered  on  this  planet. 

The  spectroscope  tells  us  that  there  are  immense  quan- 


THE   SPECTROSCOPE.  393 

tides  of  iron  in  the  sun,  more  than  two  thousand  iron 
lines  having  been  found  in  its  spectrum.  Sodium  is  also 
there  in  quantities.  Hydrogen  exists  in  the  exterior, 
forming  the  gigantic  red  flames  that  astonished  observers 
until  they  were  understood.  Calcium,  the  metallic  base  of 
limestone,  is  also  present.  All  the  familiar  metals  have 
been  identified  except  gold.  Perhaps  there  has  l>een  a 
corner  in  the  sun's  gold  market  lor  some  years,  and  the 
yellow  metal  may  lx>  found  later. 

But  the  sun  is  only  one  of  many  stars,  and  each  has  a 
spectrum  to  be  examined,  and  it  is  one  of  the  astonishing 
features  of  this  instrument  that  it  is  capable  of  receiving 
the  very  faint  light  that  falls  from  a  single  distant  star 
and  separating  it  into  a  spectrum  that  may  be  read.  In 
such  work  it  is  necessary  to  use  a  large  lens  to  condense 
as  many  rays  as  possible.  As  the  star  appears  only  as  a 
jK)int  of  light,  this  involves  the  use  of  a  cylindrical  lens 
in  order  to  spread  out  the  rays  into  a  line  of  light  which 
can  yield  a  spectrum  having  a  visible  breadth.  On  account 
of  the  feebleness  of  the  light,  very  few  prisms  can  be  used 
in  the  train. 

The  stars  are  now  undergoing  classification  according  to 
their  spectra,  and  those  placed  in  the  same  class  all  have 
something  in  common.  Those  having  very  bright  lines 
generally  exhibit  much  hydrogen  and  helium.  When  the 
lines  are  bright  instead  of  dark,  as  occasionally  happens, 
it  is  thought  that  the  vapors  surrounding  the  star  may  be 
hotter  than  the  interior,  an  anomalous  condition  of  affairs 
that  cannot  be  accounted  for  satisfactorily.  One  classifica- 
tion includes :  First,  a  group  in  which  the  presence  of 
metals  is  prominent.  Our  sun  comes  under  this  head,  also 
Capella,  the  brightest  star  in  Auriga.  Second,  the  white 
or  bluish-white  group,  which  is  the  largest,  including  such 


394  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

luminous  stars  as  Sirius  and  Vega.  These  give  a  spectrum 
rich  in  blue  rays,  and  marked  by  four  dark  lines  due  to 
hydrogen.  They  are  believed  to  have  dense  atmospheres, 
under  considerable  pressure,  and  to  be  hotter  and  less  dense 
than  our  sun. 

The  red  and  orange-colored  stars  form  the  third  group, 
of  which  iron  is  a  prominent  constituent,  and  which  exhibit 
absorptive  atmospheres.  They  are  believed  to  be  astro- 
nomically old,  and  in  a  state  of  cooling,  as  their  spectra 
resemble  those  of  the  sun's  spots. 

While  learning  the  age  and  constituents  of  the  stars  by 
means  of  this  wonderful  spectroscope,  that  tells  the  tale 
over  countless  miles  of  space,  by  analyzing  light-waves 
that  have  been  years  on  their  way,  we  gather  yet  more 
astonishing  news  from  the  observations.  When  a  star  is 
approaching  or  receding  from  us  there  is  a  marked  shifting 
of  the  lines  of  the  spectrum  to  one  side.  If  the  star's 
movement  be  towards  us,  the  lines  are  shifted  to  the  blue 
end  of  the  spectrum ;  if  away  from  us,  to  the  red  end. 
The  amount  of  the  shifting  is  the  measure  of  the  speed. 
Our  eyes  are  so  constituted  that  a  certain  number  of  vibra- 
tions of  the  ether  per  second  are  interpreted  by  the  brain 
as  a  color,  as  red.  Each  color  of  the  spectrum  is  the 
result  of  a  corresponding  number  of  vibrations  per  second 
of  the  wave-lengths  of  light.  If  a  star  is  naturally  of  a 
green  color,  and  if  it  neither  approaches  nor  recedes  from 
us,  it  will  still  appear  green ;  but  if  it  be  coming  towards 
us,  the  vibrations  are  altered  and  it  grows  blue.  If  the 
speed  be  still  greater  it  is  indigo,  or  if  the  velocity  was 
enormous  it  would  be  violet.  And  if  the  star  is  receding 
it  takes  the  color  of  the  other  half  of  the  spectrum ;  if 
slowly,  it  grows  yellowish ;  if  much  faster,  orange ;  and  if 
at  marvellous  speed,  even  red.  Some  stars  are  known  in 


THE   SPECTROSCOPE.  395 

this  way  to  move  at  a  rate  of  more  than  one  hundred  miles 
per  second,  and  astronomers  are  satisfied  that  the  pos- 
sibility of  error  in  these  estimates  is  l>elow  five  per  cent. 
Argol,  which  is  a  very  noticeable  star  in  Perseus,  has  been 
called  the  Demon  Star,  because  of  its  irregularities,  visible 
to  the  naked  eye.  It  retains  a  uniform  lustre  lor  two  days 
and  ten  hours,  as  a  star  of  the  second  magnitude,  then  it 
wanes  and  weakens  to  less  than  half  of  its  former  bright- 
ness;  but  after  a  period  returns  to  its  original  lustre,  only 
to  repeat  the  performance  as  regularly  as  the  sun  rises. 
This  puzzled  astronomers  until  the  sj>ectroseo|>e  showed 
that  during  the  bright  |>criod  Argol  moved  towards  us  as 
rapidly  as  twenty-six  miles  a  second,  and  during  the  dull 
period  receded  at  a  like  speed.  The  explanation,  then,  is 
that  Argol  simply  revolves  in  a  small  elliptical  orbit. 

The  moon  and  planets,  which  shine  by  light  reflected 
from  the  sun,  return  to  our  ol>servation  the  solar  spwtrum 
modified  more  or  less  according  as  they  have  absorbent 
atmospheres.  The  moon's  spectrum  is  precisely  the  same 
as  the  sun,  which  is  one  of  the  reasons  for  believing  that 
the  moon  is  entirely  destitute  of  an  atmosphere.  The 
spectra  of  the  largest  planets  convey  to  us  a  hint  that 
they  are  still  at  comparatively  high  temperatures.  Many 
nebula?  have  been  proved  by  the  spectroscope  to  be  princi- 
pally gaseous  in  their  formation,  wrhile  the  very  diapha- 
nous nuclei  of  comets  are  shown  to  be  similarly  formed. 
The  spectra  of  comets'  tails  convey  the  information  that 
they,  like  the  planets,  shine  by  reflected  light. 

Of  all  the  inventions  of  the  century  the  possibilities 
of  the  spectroscope  are  greatest  and  grandest.  It  has 
opened  up  entirely  new  fields  of  research  for  scientists. 
We  can  see  the  great  suns  hurrying  hither  and  thither,  on 
some  divine  plan  that  we  have  not  yet  fathomed.  But  the 


396  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

spectroscope  appears  to  be  the  key,  and  time  and  patience 
will  give  us  the  secret  of  motion  of  these  mysterious  orbs, 
just  as  we  have  learned  of  the  motions  of  the  system  of 
planets  of  which  our  earth  forms  a  part. 


MISCELLANEOUS    INVENTIONS 

The  Theatrophone,  Convertible  Theatre,  Big  Pleasure-Wheel, 
Rain-Making  Appliances,  Hydraulic  Accumulators,  Rope  Ma- 
chinery, and  Minor  Mechanisms. 

THERE  are  very  many  more  wonderful  mechanisms 
than  can  be  mentioned  within  the  compass  of  this  book. 
The  ingenuity  of  mankind  continues  to  prompt  to  new 
efforts,  and  the  ideas  of  one  inventor  furnish  food  for  an- 
other, so  that  the  increase  is  constantly  augmented.  A 
few  of  these  are  briefly  noted  here  by  way  of  conclusion. 

There  exists  in  Paris  a  Theatrophone  Company,  whose 
name  will  suggest  their  business  to  any  student  of  Greek. 
Since  1882  they  have  been  connecting  their  patrons  by 
telephone  with  the  various  theatres  of  the  city,  and  their 
mechanism  has  been  perfected  so  as  to  give  a  satisfactory 
service.  The  first  experiment  was  made  in  1881,  twenty 
pairs  of  transmitters  being  placed  on  the  stage  of  an  opera- 
house,  on  either  side  of  the  prompter's  box  and  in  front  of 
the  footlights.  A  battery  was  connected,  and  double  wires 
led  to  a  line  of  receivers.  Each  receiver  connected  with  a 
transmitter  on  the  right  of  the  stage  and  with  another  on 
the  left  of  the  stage,  so  that  the  listener  could  hear  equally 
well,  no  matter  on  which  side  the  action  might  be  taking 
place.  The  result  was  so  satisfactory  that  the  above-named 
company  was  formed  and  the  system  developed.  They 
now  have  a  central  office  and  seven  radiating  lines  of 


MISCELLANEOUS   INVENTIONS.  397 

wires,  to  which  arc  connected  hotels,  restaurants,  and 
dwellings.  A  special  room  is  provided  for  them  in  each 
of  the  theatres,  with  an  attendant  to  see  that  all  the  trans- 
mitters are  maintained  in  working  order.  At  the  (vntrnl 
office  are  two  young  women— one  to  talk  to  subscrilKTs 
who  may  desire  to  have  this  theatre  or  that  one  connected, 
and  the  other  to  make  the  connections  and  watch  to  see 
that  all  the  lines  are  working  projx'rly.  There  are  sjHH'ial 
contrivances  for  regularly  verifying  the  condition  of  the 
lines.  Between  the  acts  the  Theatrophone  Company  con- 
nects subscribers  with  music  of  its  own  production,  so  that 
something  is  to  be  heard  the  whole  evening.  By  these 
means  the  company  has  maintained  a  reliable  service,  and 
secures  good  prices,  varying  according  to  the  numl>er  of 
theatres  connected.  The  receiving  telephones  are  arranged 
for  individual  use  like  an  ordinary  telephone,  or  with  a 
wide-mouthed  funnel  to  disperse  the  sound  so  that  several 
persons  can  hear  at  the  same  time.  No  doubt  the  com- 
pany will  shortly,  if  they  have  not  already,  add  the 
kinetoscope  in  some  manner  to  their  service,  so  as  to  give 
a  more  perfect  representation  of  the  performances. 

There  is  another  novelty  in  the  theatrical  world  that 
has  just  been  added  to  the  attractions  in  that  progressive 
South  American  city,  Buenos  Ayres.  It  is  a  mammoth 
convertible  theatre,  which  actually  seats  five  thousand  per- 
sons, and  is  provided  with  elevators  to  carry  the  patrons  of 
boxes  and  galleries  from  the  level  of  the  street  to  any 
of  the  tiers  above.  By  means  of  ingenious  convertible 
mechanism  the  pit  can  be  almost  instantly  transformed  into 
a  circus  ring,  a  racing  track,  a  ring  for  a  bull  fight,  or  a 
miniature  lake  for  a  swimming  contest. 

The  enormous  revolving  pleasure-wheel  built  recently 
at  Earl's  Court,  London,  is  most  interesting  from  a  me- 


398  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

chanical  point  of  view.  It  is  three  hundred  feet  high,  and 
constructed  of  steel  throughout.  The  axle  is  a  steel  tube 
seven  feet  in  diameter,  and  thirty-five  feet  long,  being 
made  in  three  sections  of  one  inch  steel  plates.  There  are 
forty  passenger-cars,  arranged  as  were  the  cars  in  the  big 
Ferris  wheel  in  Chicago.  Each  is  twenty-four  feet  long, 
and  seats  thirty  persons,  so  that  the  total  number  of  per- 
sons who  may  ride  at  one  time  is  twelve  hundred.  Ten  of 
the  oars  are  called  first-class,  and  five  of  this  ten  are  for 
smokers.  Thirty  are  denominated  second-class.  The  cars 
are  loaded  with  passengers  from  eight  levels  near  the 
ground,  so  that  all  the  cars  may  be  filled  at  five  stoppages. 
The  rotation  of  the  wheel  is  accomplished  by  two  endless 
chains,  each  over  a  thousand  feet  in  length  and  of  eight 
tons  weight.  These  chains  run  in  brackets  on  the  extreme 
outer  edge  of  the  wheel-rim,  and  pass  underground  to 
driving  pulleys.  The  power  is  obtained  from  two  fifty- 
horse-power  engines.  On  a  level  with  the  axle  are  two 
promenade  saloons,  reached  by  spiral  stairs,  and  connected 
by  a  passageway  leading  right  through  the  axle.  Proper 
balance  of  the  structure  is  maintained  by  the  filling  and 
emptying  of  water-tanks  in  the  bottom  of  the  passenger 
cars.  The  water  is  pumped  up  to  the  top  of  the  columns, 
where  are  located  storage-tanks,  and  the  car-tanks  are  filled 
on  the  descending  side.  The  erecting  of  the  wheel  involved 
a  number  of  difficulties.  The  columns  were  first  erected 
and  the  axle  put  in  place.  One  of  the  forty  sections  of  the 
wheel  was  then  hung  on,  hauled  to  one  side  and  the  next 
one  hung  on.  The  work  proceeded  in  this  manner  until 
one-half  of  the  wheel  was  in  place.  The  upper  half  had 
to  be  put  on  with  the  aid  of  scaffolding.  There  were  no 
accidents  during  the  erection,  though  a  violent  gale  sprung 
up  when  the  work  was  about  half  complete. 


MISCELLANEOUS   INVENTIONS.  399 

Rain-making  is  a  business  that  has  not  received  much 
sanction  from  scientists.  Yet  it  is  largely  carried  on  in  the 
Mississippi  Valley,  especially  in  the  States  of  Kansas, 
Nebraska,  Iowa,  and  Oklahoma  Territory.  The  prairie 
settlers  club  together  and  hire  some  of  the  rival  rain- makers 
to  l>cdew  their  district  for  prices  ranging  from  two  hundred 
dollars  cash  to  one  hundred  dollars  down,  and  five  hun- 
dred dollars  more  when  the  rain  comes.  The  most  con- 
spicuous of  the  rain-makers  carries  his  apparatus  in  three 
box-cars,  locating  one  at  each  corner  of  a  triangle  of  the 
district  that  is  to  be  deluged.  The  cars  contain  water- 
tanks,  gas- producing  chemicals,  and  an  electric  battery,  the 
duty  of  the  latter  Ix'ing  "  to  electrify  the  gases,"  whatever 
that  may  mean.  For  three  days  the  rain-makers  send  oft' 
warm  gas  into  the  air,  claiming  that  at  a  height  of  four 
thousand  to  eight  thousand  feet  it  turns  cold,  drops,  and 
"causes  a  vacuum  that  attracts  moisture  and  induces  rain." 
As  a  high  wind  may  blow  it  off  to  one  side,  the  rain-makers 
are  enabled  to  claim  any  rain  that  falls  within  three  days 
within  a  radius  of  fifty  or  sixty  miles.  Of  course  this  is 
wholly  unscientific,  but  it  pays.  If  the  rain-makers  would 
discover  a  way  of  sending  very  fine  dust  particles  into  the 
upper  air,  they  might  succeed  in  getting  up  a  little  shower 
occasionally,  but  even  this  method,  which  is  ba«ed  on  scien- 
tific theory,  remains  to  be  proved  as  effective  in  practice. 

In  all  hydraulic  systems  accumulators  are  requisite  to 
meet  sudden  demands  for  extra  power,  and  also  for  deter- 
mining the  pressure.  In  the  Sellers  hydraulic  pump  and 
accumulator,  here  shown,  will  be  observed  a  series  of  heavy 
weights  on  the  right.  These  are  suspended  on  cross-pins 
when  out  of  use,  but  may  be  thrown  into  action  by  pulling 
out  the  pins.  The  weights  when  in  use  rest  upon  the  plun- 
ger in  the  hydraulic  cylinder  which  they  surround,  and 

R          2  33 


400 


WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 


their  gravity  is  made  to  bear  upon  the  column  of  water 
within,  this  in  turn  being  connected  with  the  tank  at  the 
left,  where  a  pressure  is  kept  up  by  means  of  the  upright 
cylinder  pumps.  The  weight  used  regulates  the  amount 
of  the  pressure  in  the  tank,  so  that  it  may  not  alter  with 
sudden  changes  in  the  work  performed. 

FIG.  99. 


SELLERS'S  HYDRAULIC  ACCUMULATOR. 


Within  a  few  years  the  manufacture  of  rope  has  been 
entirely  revolutionized,  largely  by  one  man,  John  Good,  of 
New  York  City.  He  has  caused  the  old  rope-walk  to  be 


MISCELLANEOUS   INVENTIONS.  401 

superseded  by  automatic  machines  that  manufacture  the 
finest  twine  and  the  largest  cable  without  hand  labor.  He 
has  recently  added  to  his  other  inventions  an  electric  bind- 
ing-twine spinner,  that  does  alx>ut  double  or  treble  the 
work  of  the  machines  now  in  use.  This  will  l>e  introduced 
as  soon  as  present  patents  expire.  Good's  rope-machine,  as 
at  present  used,  is  really  two  separate  machines,  a  former  and 
a  laver.  The  former  has  a  circular  gauge-plate,  full  of  small 
holes,  through  which  the  threads  from  the  bobbins  are 
introduced.  Thence  they  pass  to  a  revolving  horizontal 
capstan,  which  twists  them  into  a  cord  that  is  gathered  on 
a  reel.  These  reels  are  taken  to  the  layer,  which  is  much 
larger  than  the  forming-machine,  and  laid  or  twisted  into 
a  thick  rope  by  means  of  a  revolving  capstan,  similar  to 
that  of  the  former. 

John  A.  Secor,  an  engineer  of  Brooklyn,  New  York, 
claims  to  have  invented  a  practical  method  of  vessel  pro- 
pulsion that  will  do  away  with  steam-engines,  screws, 
shafting,  etc.,  on  steamships,  securing  greater  sjxxxl  and 
increased  room.  His  plan  is  a  modification  of  the  princi- 
ple of  the  rocket,  which  is  propel  led  by  the  gases  that  it 
shoots  out  backward.  Mr.  Secor  proposes  to  use  in  a 
vessel  a  stout,  cannon -like  cylinder,  extending  lengthwise 
of  the  vessel  and  projecting  into  the  water  from  the  stern. 
From  this  cylinder  or  cannon  he  fires,  at  regular  intervals, 
an  explosive  mixture  of  air  and  gas.  This  gas  is  manu- 
factured from  coal,  and  its  explosion  is  managed  as  in  a 
gas-  or  petroleum-engine.  Mr.  Secor  has  experimented 
with  a  vessel  one  hundred  feet  long,  using  a  firing-cylinder 
ten  feet  long  and  eighteen  inches  in  diameter.  For  a  great 
ocean  steamer  he  would  use  a  battery  of  these  firing-cyl- 
inders. His  experiments  and  claims  have  attracted  atten- 
tion because  of  his  standing  as  a  mechanic,  and  because 


402  WONDERS  OF  MODERN  MECHANISM. 

of  the  success  of  motors  made  on  similar  principles,  which 
are  now  coming  into  use  for  propelling  bicycles  and  road- 
wagons. 

It  would  be  interesting  to  explore  further,  and  note  such 
interesting  machines  as  the  electric  weed-killer,  that  may 
be  attached  to  a  locomotive  and  used  to  destroy  the  weeds 
growing  on  or  near  the  track  by  the  burning  of  a  strong 
current ;  or  the  machine  for  dipping  tin-plate,  that  handles 
three  crates  of  plate  at  one  time,  picks  them  off  the  car, 
dips  them  in  the  molten  tin,  shaking  them  up  and  down  a 
few  dozen  times,  then  lifts  them  out,  into  a  cleansing  or 
swilling  tank,  all  automatically,  by  the  power  of  steam ; 
or  the  envelope-machine,  that  gathers  in  a  roll  of  paper, 
some  mucilage,  and  some  green  ink  and  turns  out  govern- 
ment envelopes  all  cut,  gummed,  stamped,  and  tied  up  in 
packs  of  twenty-five ;  or  any  one  of  a  thousand  others  : 
but  space  forbids.  We  have  gone  far  enough  to  gain  a 
glimpse  of  what  man  is  doing  and  is  likely  to  do  in  the 
near  future,  and  it  is  time  to  close  the  book. 


FINIS. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 
BERKELEY 

Return  to  desk  from  which  borrowed. 
This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  below. 


FEb  I  2  1954  LI 

'  "•  ~    •     . 


0   MAY  1 
APR    31987 


rose.  MAR 


10*87 


LD  21-100m-7,'52(A2528sl6)476 


U.C.  BERKELEY  LIBRARIES 


8001024084 


- 


8 


933699 


THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


